Bibliographic record
Abstract
Pharmaceutical policies generally provide for patients to pay a part of the costs of the drugs which they receive. A variety of co-payment systems exist. As noted in Chapter 3, they can take the form of (1) a fixed sum per prescription; (2) a percentage of the overall cost of the prescription; (3) a combination of fixed sums and percentages; and (4) deductibles. In OECD countries the system of fixed sums is used less then the proportional system, i.e. a percentage of the prescription price. Fixed sums are payable in Australia, Austria, Germany, Japan, New Zealand and the UK, while percentage charges apply in Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Korea, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and under private insurance schemes in the USA. Belgium and Italy employ mixed systems. The proportion of co-payment required varies in some countries with the therapeutic value of the drug. In many low and middle-income countries co-payment has been introduced since the 1980’s as an element in cost recovery schemes or revolving funds in which patients are asked user fees (see Chapter 15).
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.023 | 0.118 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.004 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.009 | 0.004 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.008 | 0.006 |
| Open science | 0.003 | 0.009 |
| Research integrity | 0.006 | 0.011 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.041 | 0.003 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".