Predation sharpens the adaptive peaks: survival trade-offs in sympatric sticklebacks
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This study tests whether living in different lake habitats in benthic and limnetic sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus complex) has resulted in divergence of antipredator traits and habitat-associated survival trade-offs. Adult benthics were larger than limnetics, had poorly developed defensive armour and showed no tendency to school with conspecifics. Limnetics, in contrast, were smaller, had well developed defensive armour and demonstrated strong schooling behaviour. In littoral arenas, juvenile limnetics were significantly more vulnerable than juvenile benthics to predation by adult benthics and backswimmers (Notonecta sp.) but not dragonfly larvae (Aeshna sp.). This pattern was reversed in open water arenas when adult benthics and limnetics were exposed to diving avian predators, double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus). These findings show that divergence in antipredator traits between benthic and limnetic sticklebacks has accompanied divergence in foraging traits, resulting in survival trade-offs in addition to those previously observed for foraging success and growth rates across habitats.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; both teacher heads agree on what is shown here.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".