50th Anniversary of Artificial Cells: Their Role in Biotechnology, Nanomedicine, Regenerative Medicine, Blood Substitutes, Bioencapsulation, Cell/Stem Cell Therapy and Nanorobotics
Why this work is in the frame
A frame that forgets how it found something cannot be audited. These are the routes that admitted this work.
Bibliographic record
Abstract
It was 50 years ago that the first “artificial cells” were prepared [1,2]. This was not an attempt to reproduce biological cells, but to use available basic knowledge to prepare simple systems for possible uses in medicine and other areas. The 1957 emulsion method for forming ultrathin polymeric membrane artificial cells containing hemoglobin and red blood cell enzymes (Figure 1) has become the basis for the preparation of other types of microscopic and nanodimension artificial cells. Extensions of the original 1957 drop procedure for forming larger artificial cells (Figure 1) have become the basis for preparing artificial cells to contain islet, hepatocytes, genetic engineered cells, stem cells and other types of cells. Figure 1 Original 1957 method of preparing artificial cells (for details see [1,5]). Upper: drop method for preparing large artificial cells. Principle later extended for use in bioencapsulation of cells, stem cells, genetic engineered cells. Lower: emulsion phase ... There have been increasing and recently explosive interest and research activities around the world on artificial cells, especially in fields related to biotechnology, nanomedicine, nanoscience, bioencapsulation, cell therapy, blood substitutes, advance drug delivery systems, and even nanoscale robotics and others (Table 1). However, instead of the term “artificial cells,” many use other terminologies, such as liposomes, nanoparticles, microcapsules, blood substitutes, bioencapsulation, and so on. Table 1 Examples of areas of application (details in [4,5] As a result, any meaningful literature search for a complete idea of the present status of the whole field of artificial cells is impossible. Furthermore, the fact that papers in this highly interdisciplinary area are published in numerous journals specializing in chemistry, medicine, surgery, bioengineering, nanoscience and others makes a literature search even more difficult. Books in this area are mostly multi-authored, describing very specific and narrow areas. Thus for the 50th anniversary of artificial cells the author has just prepared a monograph on ARTIFICIAL CELLS: Biotechnology, Nanomedicine, Regenerative Medicine, Blood Substitutes and Cell/Stem Cell Therapy [5]. This is now such a large area that it needed more than 1000 references just to summarize the present status and future perspectives of artificial cells.
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Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.004 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.004 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it