Determinants of Police Strength in Canadian Cities: Assessing the Impact of Minority Threat
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The minority threat proposition posits that the size of minority populations is positively associated with levels of formal social control. Recent research in other nations has shown a clear and consistent relationship between the size of subordinate populations and the number of police as well as increased law enforcement spending. This study examined the relationships, in Canada’s largest cities, between six indicators of minority populations and both the ratio of police officers to residents and per capita policing expenditures. Inconsistent with the results of recent US, German, and Spanish studies, indicators of population heterogeneity were not significantly associated with police strength or spending. Levels of police-reported violent crime and population density, however, were strongly associated with both measures of police strength. Police strength was also positively associated with cities that had municipal police services, higher unemployment rates, and the percentage of conservative voters in provincial elections. Implications for the development of theories of formal social control are discussed.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.003 | 0.005 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".