Immobilization of Biomolecules in Sol–Gels: Biological and Analytical Applications
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The encapsulation or generation of new surfaces that can fix biomolecules firmly without altering their original conformations and activities is still challenging for the utilization of biochemical functions of active biomolecules. Presently, sol–gel chemistry offers new and interesting possibilities for the promising encapsulation of heat-sensitive and fragile biomolecules (enzyme, protein, antibody and whole cells of plant, animal and microbes); mainly, it is an inherent low temperature process and biocompatible. The typical sol–gel process initiates by the hydrolysis of M(OR) 4 and is performed in the presence of the active biomolecule. Hydrolysis and condensation of the M-monomers in the presence of an acid or base catalyst trigger cross-linking with formation of amorphous MO 2 , a porous inorganic matrix that grows around the biomolecule in a three-dimensional manner. This class of sol–gel matrices possesses chemical inertness, physical rigidity, negligible swelling in aqueous solution, tunable porosity, high photochemical and thermal stability, and optical transparency. These attractive features have led to intense research in the optical and electrochemical biosensors, which may be useful for medical, environmental and industrial applications. On the other hand, sol–gel encapsulated organelles have been transplanted to the living systems, and plant/animal/microbial cells have also been employed for the production of commercially important metabolites. This review article highlights the advantages, recent developments, applications and future perspectives of sol–gel immobilized biomolecules, which includes enzymes, antibodies, microorganisms, plant and animal cells.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".