The Meaning of Marriage to Same-Sex Families: Formal Partnership, Parenthood, Gender, and the Welfare State in International Perspective
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Lesbian and gay male couples formalize romantic partnerships at different rates. These rates differ differently depending on national context, with female partnerships exceeding male partnerships in U.S. contexts, while gay male partnerships exceed lesbian partnerships in some European contexts, and rough parity is reached in Canada. Through a cross-national analysis of welfare regimes, partnership forms, and patterns of formal same-sex partnership in eight nations and three U.S. states over time, we explain these gendered differences in formal partnership rates. We conclude that forms of relationship recognition interact with parental rights, either to facilitate or impede the achievement of social and legal parental ties between same-sex couples and their children. As formal partnership forms for same-sex couples change over time, their relative appeal to male and female couples changes as well.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.007 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".