The Structure and Characteristics of Japanese Foreign Direct Investment in West Germany
Bibliographic record
Abstract
As recently as 1967 Japan's outstanding stock of direct foreign investment of US $ 1.5 billion identified it as a modest international investor ranked alongside Sweden but behind the Netherlands and Canada.1 Since then Japan's direct investment abroad has become a factor of considerable importance in the world economy. By 1978 Japan's stock had increased to $ 27 billion giving it an equal third ranking with West Germany behind the US and UK. This paper examines the characteristics, structure and changing pattern of Japan's direct investment in West Germany and attempts to account for such quite recent efforts to establish a direct investment foothold in high per capita income economies. Macroeconomic Features The rather sudden emergence of Japanese investment abroad has its roots in certain post1945 changes and events inside the Japanese economy and the fundamental shift which occurred in the control of world energy resources. A significant feature of post-war US foreign policy was a desire to shape Japan and West Germany into economically strong allies of the West. In the case of Japan, the initial economic stimulus was provided by heavy procurement by US forces during the Korean war. Rapid and sustained growth was made possible by highly productive and low-wage labour, a high domestic savings ratio, easy and cheap access to advanced American technology, economics of scale and the partial eliminiation of international trade barriers.2 A typical consequence of fast growth is that the growth rate slows down sooner than would otherwise be the case. This arises from pressures and bottlenecks of various kinds which in Japan, from the late sixties onwards, consisted of constraints imposed by shortages of land and labour. A shift from light, labour-intensive manufacturing to heavy industrial goods caused the price of industrial land to soar. At the same time, efforts to satisfy andspread aspirations for higher education created serious shortages and wage pressures in the unskilled and semi-skilled labour markets. A development of some importance was a change in the international posture of energy and resource-exporting countries which became increasingly prepared to use raw materials supply as a political weapon and as a consequence of which conventional, traditional or
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".