Scavenging on European bison carcasses in Bialowieza Primeval Forest (eastern Poland)
Bibliographic record
Abstract
We investigated the utilization of European bison, Bison bonasus, carcasses by the scavenging guild in Bialowieza Primeval Forest (eastern Poland) during 1997-2001. Twelve carcasses were monitored in systematic visits till total depletion (N=303). Thirteen species of birds and mammals utilized bison carcasses. Most frequent scavengers and their mean scavenging frequencies (mean percentage of visits to each carcass with a given scavenger species recorded) were raven, Corvus corax, 72% red fox, Vulpes vulpes, 41% wolf, Canis lupus, 29% common buzzard, Buteo buteo, 23% raccoon dog, Nyctereutes procyonoides, 20% and white-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla, 16%. Ravens and white-tailed eagles were observed significantly more often at carcasses placed in clearings than at those exposed in the forest. The opposite was recorded for raccoon dogs. Manifest habitat segregation was also found for flocks of immature ravens and territorial pairs. Wolves had an important facilitation effect for other species and triggered their scavenging activity. Bison carcasses were utilized for an average of 106 ± 61 days (mean ± SD), to over 80% of live weight consumed. The estimated mean daily consumption by all scavengers was 3 kg day-1 (range 0-68), being highest during the first 2 weeks (6.8 ± 6.2 kg day-1). The utilization time of bison carcasses depended on the index of carcass openness, the number of wolf feeding visits to the carcass, the date of carcass exposure, and the habitat type (forest versus open clearings). Ambient temperature had a significant effect on the rate of carcass depletion, while the effects of snow cover and precipitation were negligible.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".