Bibliographic record
Abstract
Introduction From the late eighteenth century until recently, the common law world included just two alternative constitutional models for the protection of individual rights. The first, developed in Britain, is the model of parliamentary sovereignty, which reposes primary responsibility for protecting rights in parliaments. The second, developed in the United States, is the model of judicial review, which reposes that responsibility in courts of law. In countries founded by Britain, the first model was established; even when federations were formed, in Australia and Canada, judicial review was adopted only as a means of policing the federal distribution of powers, and not (generally speaking) as a means of protecting rights. Some former British dominions adopted the American model upon or after achieving independence, such as Ireland, India and (more recently) South Africa. But otherwise, the British model predominated throughout the common law world. Recently, Canada, New Zealand and Britain have adopted ‘hybrid’ models, which allocate much greater responsibility for protecting rights to courts, without altogether abandoning the principle of parliamentary sovereignty. In Canada, judicial enforcement of the Charter of Rights 1982 is for the most part subject to s. 33, which permits legislatures by express provision to override most of the rights protected by the Charter. To that extent, the principle of parliamentary sovereignty has been retained, although in practice the power of override is seldom used.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.004 | 0.008 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.004 | 0.011 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.006 | 0.006 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.006 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.017 | 0.003 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".