Three-Dimensional Analysis of the Internal Mammary Artery Perforator Flap
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Bibliographic record
Abstract
BACKGROUND: The internal mammary artery perforator flap is a versatile flap used for reconstruction of the head and neck. Using dissection, angiograms, and three-dimensional reconstruction, the authors describe the vascular anatomy of the internal mammary perforator arteries, including their course, diameter, location of perforation, and relationship to other tissues (e.g., bone, muscle, and skin). METHODS: Fourteen fresh cadavers were injected with either latex or a lead oxide/gelatin mixture and dissected to show the anatomy of the internal mammary artery perforators. Plain film and computed tomographic angiograms were obtained and analyzed on the lead oxide-injected cadavers. The computed tomographic angiography Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine images were imported into Materialise's Interactive Medical Imaging Control System software to produce three-dimensional reconstructions of the internal mammary artery perforator anatomy. RESULTS: The second internal mammary artery perforator was the dominant perforator in 10 of the 14 cadavers. The mean emerging diameter of the dominant second perforator was 1.0±0.4 mm, with a mean superficial length of 51.8±16.1 mm on the latex-injected and lead oxide-injected cadaver angiograms. The mean distance from the sternal margin to the point of emergence from the internal mammary artery was 7±1.4 mm. The three-dimensional reconstructions demonstrated anastomoses between the dominant perforator and the lateral thoracic artery. CONCLUSIONS: The vascular anatomy of the internal mammary artery perforators was documented using cadaveric dissections, angiograms, and computed tomographic angiograms analyzed with Materialise's Interactive Medical Imaging Control System. The diameter, point of perforation, course, and relationship to surrounding anatomical structures has been shown using a vascular injection technique and three-dimensional reconstructions.
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Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it