Bibliographic record
Abstract
Acid Rain is defined as precipitation (rain) that has a pH lower than 5.6, which is the pH expected in distilled water exposed to the atmosphere. (pH is a measure ot the acidity or alkalinity of a water sample.) The pH Of precipitation undoubtedly is affected by a variety of natural sources of acidic and alkaline materials (e.g. volcanic gases, gases from decompoSng Organic matter and soil dust). However it has recently become apparent that rain and snow in certain regions of the earth are consistently more acidic than expected. The European Atmosphere Chemistry Net Work first recognized that the pH of precipitation was declining in Scandinavia during the late 1960's. Current data indicates that the mean annual pH in this region was 5.0 - 5.5 in the late 1950's which declined to 4.2 • 4.4 in the mid 1970's. In Eastern North America precipitation is now more acidic than in Scandinavia. The median pH for 1978 • 1979 ranged from 4.0 to 4.4 in North Eastern U.S. and South Eastem Canada. Although there is disagreement over the Source and nature Of acidic precipitation , the most widely accepted view is that the increased acidity is a result of the presence Of increased quantities Of sulphuric and nitric acids. These acids are believed to result from oxidation Of sulphur and nitrogen oxide gases. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are produced from combustion of fossil fuels, metal smelting and various industrial processes.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.003 | 0.007 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.004 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.005 | 0.005 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.006 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.021 | 0.006 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".