Above the coal mines : the evolution of mine reclamation in the United States
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Prior to 1977, there was no federal law in the United States that regulated the surface mining aspect of the coal industry. Individual states were responsible for their own regulations and laws. After World War II, most states enacted more stringent post-mining reclamation requirements. By 1965, mine operators were expected to act on their own to restore the land that they mined. The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMACRA) established permitting guidelines for existing as well as future mining activities. The purpose of SMCRA is to ensure that coal mining is conducted in an environmentally-responsible manner and that the land is progressively reclaimed during the mining process. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, coal-mining states developed their own programs consistent with SMCRA and were given the primary responsibility to regulate surface coal mining on lands with the federal Office of Surface Mining providing jurisdiction. This paper presents a photographic history of coal mine reclamation as it was practiced from the 1940s to the present day and suggests that through observation of past mine reclamation practices we can develop strategies for future land rehabilitation.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".