Rutherford at McGill and Manchester universities: new challenges in Cambridge
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The changing frontiers of physics research The outbreak of the First World War brought much of the research activity in UK universities to a halt. In particular, as indicated in Section 7.8, a whole generation of young men enlisted with tragic loss of life in the trenches of northern France, Belgium and the Low Countries. Although the attentions of experimental physicists had to turn to military-related topics, the theorists who remained in the universities throughout Europe continued to produce work of the highest quality. Perhaps most spectacular of all were the contributions of Einstein. As expressed by Pais, Einstein's productivity was not affected by the deep troubles of the war years, which, in fact, rank among the most productive and creative of his career. During this period, he completed the general theory of relativity, found correct values for the bending of light and the displacement of the perihelion of Mercury, did pioneering work in cosmology and gravitational waves, introduced his A and B coefficients for radiative transitions, found a new derivation of Planck's radiation law – and ran into his first troubles with causality in quantum mechanics. During the war, he produced, in all, one book and about fifty papers, …(Pais, 1982) At the same time, Einstein became an outspoken radical pacifist, which provoked a hostile reaction from the authorities in the midst of a devastating war. By the end of the war, there had been major advances in the efforts to incorporate quantum concepts into physics at the atomic level, what is conveniently referred to as the old quantum theory . This was to continue in the years immediately following the war until the quantum revolution of 1925–27, associated with the names of Heisenberg, Born, Jordan, Dirac, Schrödinger, Pauli and many others.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.003 | 0.004 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.008 | 0.013 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.013 | 0.012 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.006 |
| Research integrity | 0.006 | 0.005 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.053 | 0.008 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".