Academic Medicine during the Nazi Period: The Implications for Creating Awareness of Professional Responsibility Today
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In the mid-1930s, a young physician from Louisiana by the name of Michael DeBakey began a period of surgical training in Europe. After studying vascular surgery in France, he moved to Germany to continue his surgical studies with Professor Martin Kirschner at the University of Heidelberg. 1 Heidelberg was, at that time, recognized as a center for outstanding surgical training. Young DeBakey was following a decades old tradition whereby North American physicians traveled to the birthplace of modern scientific medicine—Europe. 2 It was the German-language universities that gave birth to many of the major discoveries and developments that have formed the foundation of modern medicine and medical science. DeBakey s European quest followed in the footsteps of such eminent physicians as the clinician William Osier, the pathologist William Welch, and the surgeon William Halsted. The period that saw an eruption in knowledge and technology in clinical and basic science also witnessed the parallel development of eugenics and scientific racism, which were also considered legitimate scholarly and scientific endeavors.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.009 | 0.007 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.016 | 0.048 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.012 | 0.015 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.006 |
| Research integrity | 0.006 | 0.010 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.004 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".