Bibliographic record
Abstract
In the third quarter of the twentieth century, oil replaced coal as the major source of energy in western Europe. During the last quarter, the growing power of the nations with oil reserves and the price increases introduced from the early 1970s by their cartel, the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), ensured that oil lost its predominance and mixed regimes of nuclear, HEP, oil, natural gas and coal emerged. Before the Second World War, coal was dominant, and the concentration of deposits in the UK, the Low Countries and Germany had vital effects on the energy policies of other European countries. I said little in earlier chapters about the structure of the coal industry and how it was regulated. As a natural resource, coal has certain similarities to oil, and in this chapter I attempt to explain how and why coal and oil were owned and regulated, to draw out the implications for the generation of electricity supply and to identify the key interests of the state. The economic organisation of the coal and oil sectors was very different from the other infrastructure industries. In brief, private enterprise has been dominant in much of the period since 1850, albeit with governments not far away. The need to control monopoly elements by price regulation and profit constraints was not strong.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.019 | 0.003 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".