Bibliographic record
Abstract
One of the most important ideologies prevalent within government circles during the late nineteenth century and into the twentieth was liberalism, a complex idea that manifested itself in various western countries in a variety of ways. In Canada, because of its dominance during the time the Numbered Treaties were negotiated, liberalism influenced not only non-Native government officials’ understanding of the treaties themselves, but also how they were to be implemented. Space does not allow for a full discussion of liberalism, but an examination of some of its principal characteristics will demonstrate the presence of this ideology within the texts of the Numbered Treaties, and an examination of their implementation by non-Native agents will demonstrate how the liberal order framework that developed from the ideology came to pervade non-Native interpretations of the treaties. It must be pointed out, however, that there were other ideologies and views at work that limited liberalism’s power; thus the liberal order framework in Canada had to be adaptive and at times even ambiguous in its application. Liberalism, to quote Ian McKay, is “a project of rule,” and, therefore, encompasses a broad spectrum of ideas, attitudes, and beliefs. McKay also argues that, in its essence, liberalism emphasizes individualism, property, and the rule of law.1 Individualism as an idea was the belief that every individual had the right to choose his own course of action, providing he did not “harm” others in doing so. Liberals believed that all individuals had the right to as much freedom as possible, from the state and from others, and that all individuals should possess those freedoms in equal measure. Thus, equality of individuals was also an important idea in liberalism. In reality, each individual having ultimate freedom was impractical, as freedom for one could mean less freedom for another.2 Thus, a balance had to be struck between individuals, and between individuals and the state. One way to maintain the balance was to ensure that no group was given more, or different, freedoms or protections than another. To liberals, guaranteeing a specific group protection from oppression was meaningless, as all individuals, including those within that group, would have the freedoms they needed already. If individuals were free, then they could not be oppressed.3 If the sanctity of individualism is applied to the Numbered Treaties, then they pose problems to the liberal state, as they could be interpreted as documents that give more freedom to one group within society, that is the signatory First Nations, than non-Natives. Consider the provisions for hunting and fishing rights, in which
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.005 | 0.006 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.013 | 0.036 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.010 | 0.007 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.004 |
| Research integrity | 0.003 | 0.007 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.007 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".