Permittivity and Conductivity Measured Using a Novel Toroidal Split-Ring Resonator
Bibliographic record
Abstract
We describe and demonstrate the use of a novel toroidal split-ring resonator to make accurate and precise measurements of the permittivity of liquids and gases. We first analytically show how the resonance frequency and quality factor of the resonator are related to the complex permittivity of the material filling its gap. We then use the resonator to experimentally determine the permittivity of a number of different materials. First, the compact and high-Q resonator is used to measure both the real and imaginary parts of the complex permittivity of methyl alcohol at 185 MHz. Second, the resonator was placed inside a vacuum-tight Dewar. We measured the resonance frequency with the resonator suspended in vacuum and then immersed in an atmosphere of air. From these data, the dielectric constant of air was accurately determined. Next, the resonator was submerged in liquid nitrogen, and the boiling temperature of the nitrogen bath was manipulated by regulating its vapor pressure. This system allowed for a precise measurement of the dielectric constant of liquid nitrogen over a temperature range of 64 to 77 K. Finally, we monitored the quality factor of the copper resonator as its temperature drifted from 80 K to room temperature. From these data, we extracted the linear temperature dependence of copper's resistivity.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".