A Global Perspective on Gender Roles and Identity

Among the social determinants that affect the health and well-being of young people throughout the world, gender is a pivotal influence, with both subtle and overt, immediate as well as longer term influences on adolescent development, resources and opportunities, and ultimately, adolescent and adult health. Most societies are profoundly gendered; these gender roles and expectations affect nearly every aspect of life from infancy onward. They contribute to health disparities that are noted between genders across the life course and in every country throughout the world. The processes by which gender identities and roles are communicated and reinforced for young people have been considered within a number of theories, with varying levels of empirical support [[1]Bussey K. Bandura A. Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation.Psych Rev. 1999; 106: 676-713Crossref PubMed Scopus (1187) Google Scholar]. However, even Bussey and Bandura's social cognitive theory of gender development has been documented primarily in research from high-income countries, notably in North America. The research has focused on gender identity development in early childhood and gendered influences on health differences and social roles in later adolescence, but very little captures gender role development during early adolescence. Much of the work notes the differences in gendered attributes and roles [[2]Perry D.G. Pauletti R.E. Gender and adolescent development.J Res Adolesc. 2011; 21: 61-74Crossref Scopus (168) Google Scholar], without truly capturing the detailed processes by which those gender roles and gender stereotypes actually influence beliefs and behaviors, especially across different cultures. The work in this supplement fills these important gaps in the literature. The Global Early Adolescent Study focuses on developmental issues of younger adolescents, age 10 to 14 years, in 15 different high-, middle-, and low-income countries across the world. Equally importantly, this study focuses on adolescents within low-income settings in each of these countries, to capture relatively unexplored contexts for gender identity development. As some of the first work to emerge from this important study of early adolescence, the papers in this supplement offer a fascinating look into key aspects of development during the intensification of gender socialization and gender roles that occurs around puberty. This study is being undertaken in two phases, with the first designed as an exploratory qualitative examination of how gender is experienced across the various settings, identifying cross-cutting themes, and the second phase intended to incorporate a longitudinal quantitative design. This supplement includes detailed methodological overviews of the first phase of the study, both in a first paper describing the overall qualitative methods within and across each country [[3]Mmari K. Blum R.W. Atnafou R. et al.Exploration of gender norms and socialization among early adolescents: The use of qualitative methods for the Global Early Adolescent Study.J Adolesc Health. 2017; 61: S12-S18Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar] as well as an extended example of an analytical approach undertaken in some of the work [[4]Tolman D.L. Yu C. Mmari K. Interpreting narratives within a cross national interdisciplinary study: a case study of a collaborative process.J Adolesc Health. 2017; 61: S19-S23Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2) Google Scholar]. Some of the papers focus on two-country comparisons: for example, one describes the process of learning gender norms among young adolescents in low-income urban areas in Delhi, India, and Shanghai, China [[5]Basu S. Zuo X. Lou C. et al.Learning to be gendered: Gender socialization in early adolescence among urban poor in Delhi, India and Shanghai, China.J Adolesc Health. 2017; 61: S24-S29Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (58) Google Scholar]. A second paper compares gender norms about early adolescent friendships in Egypt and Belgium [[6]Al-Attar G. De Meyer S. El-Gibaly O. et al.“A boy would be friends with boys … and a girl … with girls”: Gender norms in early adolescent friendships in Egypt and Belgium.J Adolesc Health. 2017; 61: S30-S34Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar]. Another of the papers focuses on both youth and parental reactions to puberty in two countries, Kenya and Nigeria, as both a cross-cultural and intergenerational comparison [[7]Bello B.M. Fatusi A.O. Adepoju O.E. et al.Adolescent and parental reactions to puberty in Nigeria and Kenya: A cross-cultural and intergenerational comparison.J Adolesc Health. 2017; 61: S35-S41Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar]. Beyond two-country comparisons, one of the papers focuses on a more complex cross-cultural exploration of how gender norms influence early adolescent romantic relationships in low-income areas of five cities: Baltimore, Cuenca, Edinburgh, Ghent, and Nairobi [[8]DeMeyer S. Kågesten A. Mmari K. et al.“Boys should have the courage to ask a girl out”: Gender norms in early adolescent romantic relationships.J Adolesc Health. 2017; 61: S42-S47Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (32) Google Scholar]. A final paper examines the consequences of challenging gender norms in low-income urban areas in middle-income countries (Delhi, India, and Shanghai, China) as well as high-income countries (Baltimore, U.S., and Ghent, Belgium) [[9]Yu C. Zuo X. Blum R.W. et al.Marching to a different drummer: A cross-cultural comparison of young adolescents who challenge gender norms.J Adolesc Health. 2017; 61: S48-S54Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar]. The supplement is rounded out by three commentaries, one from the study principal investigators summarizing the key points across the different settings [[10]Blum R.W. Mmari K. Moreau C. It begins at 10: How gender expectations shape early adolescence around the world.J Adolesc Health. 2017; 61: S3-S4Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar], one from the World Health Organization and other sponsors of the study about the implications of these first findings [[11]Chandra-Mouli V. Plesons M. Adebayo E. et al.Implications of the Global Early Adolescent Study's formative research findings for action and for research.J Adolesc Health. 2017; 61: S5-S9Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar], and another from the government and foundation donors who funded the study and supported this supplement [[12]Lane C. Brundage C.L. Kreinin T. Why we must invest in early adolescence: Early intervention, lasting impact.J Adolesc Health. 2017; 61: S10-S11Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar]. Together the papers within this supplement offer rich and innovative glimpses inside the transitions of early adolescence and the processes by which gender socialization influences development, opportunities, and health in urban areas in several countries around the world. They contribute important insights into the nearly universal presence of some gender norms, even in countries that generally consider themselves to have high levels of gender equity, as well as observations unique to specific cities. As a result, they underscore the importance of context in shaping the way gender is learned, enforced, and reinforced among adolescents, and the health inequities that can emerge as a result of these social forces. Exploration of Gender Norms and Socialization Among Early Adolescents: The Use of Qualitative Methods for the Global Early Adolescent StudyJournal of Adolescent HealthVol. 61Issue 4PreviewThe Global Early Adolescent Study (GEAS) was launched in 2014 with the primary goal of understanding the factors in early adolescence that predispose young people to subsequent sexual risks, and conversely, those that promote healthy sexuality across different cultural contexts. The present article describes the methodology that was used for the first phase of GEAS, which consisted of conducting qualitative research to understand the gendered transitions into adolescence and the role that gender norms play within the key relationships of adolescents. Full-Text PDF Open AccessInterpreting Narratives Within a Cross-National Interdisciplinary Study: A Case Study of a Collaborative ProcessJournal of Adolescent HealthVol. 61Issue 4PreviewThis article presents a case study of a collaborative process for the analysis of a young girl's narrative on becoming an adolescent in Shanghai. The purpose was to illuminate how interpretation of narratives can be strengthened with a diverse team of researchers. Full-Text PDF Open AccessLearning to Be Gendered: Gender Socialization in Early Adolescence Among Urban Poor in Delhi, India, and Shanghai, ChinaJournal of Adolescent HealthVol. 61Issue 4PreviewThe purpose of the study is to understand the gender socialization process in early adolescence. Full-Text PDF Open AccessWhy We Must Invest in Early Adolescence: Early Intervention, Lasting ImpactJournal of Adolescent HealthVol. 61Issue 4PreviewOver the past 20 years, we have seen global reductions in maternal mortality and gains in early childhood survival [1]. As world leaders are now increasingly focused on achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals to ensure that all women, girls, and adolescents have equal chances of surviving and thriving, it is timely for us as funders to use our collective voice to heighten global attention and investment to one specific, and often understudied, group: young adolescents aged 10–14 years. Full-Text PDF Open Access“A Boy Would Be Friends With Boys … and a Girl … With Girls”: Gender Norms in Early Adolescent Friendships in Egypt and BelgiumJournal of Adolescent HealthVol. 61Issue 4PreviewA gender analysis was conducted to illuminate the key elements of friendships highlighted by early adolescent girls and boys in two sites for the purpose of better understanding the impact of gender norms on adolescent friendships in different contexts. Full-Text PDF Open AccessImplications of the Global Early Adolescent Study's Formative Research Findings for Action and for ResearchJournal of Adolescent HealthVol. 61Issue 4PreviewAdolescence is a critical life stage—a time of enormous physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development. During adolescence, boys and girls develop the ability to think abstractly and critically. They begin to form a sense of who they are and what role they want to play in the world. While parents continue to be important in their lives, adolescents transition from strong parental control in childhood to greater independence as they move through their teenage years. Meanwhile, as adolescents' social networks expand beyond their immediate families and neighborhoods, peers play a greater role in influencing their opinions, attitudes, and behaviors [1]. Full-Text PDF Open AccessAdolescent and Parental Reactions to Puberty in Nigeria and Kenya: A Cross-Cultural and Intergenerational ComparisonJournal of Adolescent HealthVol. 61Issue 4PreviewThis qualitative study assesses the cross-cultural and intergenerational reactions of young adolescents and parents to puberty in Ile-Ife, Nigeria, and Nairobi, Kenya. Full-Text PDF Open Access“Boys Should Have the Courage to Ask a Girl Out”: Gender Norms in Early Adolescent Romantic RelationshipsJournal of Adolescent HealthVol. 61Issue 4PreviewThe purpose of the study is to explore how gender norms emerge in romantic relationships among early adolescents (EAs) living in five poor urban areas. Full-Text PDF Open AccessMarching to a Different Drummer: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Young Adolescents Who Challenge Gender NormsJournal of Adolescent HealthVol. 61Issue 4PreviewLittle is known about how gender norms regulate adolescents' lives across different cultural settings. This study aims to illustrate what is considered as violating gender norms for boys and girls in four urban poor sites as well as the consequences that follow the challenging of gender norms. Full-Text PDF Open AccessIt Begins at 10: How Gender Expectations Shape Early Adolescence Around the WorldJournal of Adolescent HealthVol. 61Issue 4PreviewThe period of adolescence (ages 10–19 years) is one of the most critical periods of human development as the health and well-being at this age influences health trajectories with lifelong consequences. While considered among the healthiest period of the lifespan, the period of early adolescence (ages 10–14 years) is also a transitional period in which many health behaviors are acquired. However, this has been greatly overlooked. To address this gap, in the fall of 2011, a group of six research teams met in Dakar, Senegal, to begin conceptualizing a study focused on early adolescents. Full-Text PDF Open Access

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