Low Power and Small Area, 6.9 ps RMS Time-to-Digital Converter for 3-D Digital SiPM
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Time-of-flight measurements are becoming essential to the advancement of several fields, such as preclinical positron emission tomography and high energy physics. Recent developments in single photon avalanche diode (SPAD)-based detectors have spawned a great interest in digital silicon photomultipliers (dSiPMs). To overcome the tradeoff between the photosensitive area and the processing capabilities in current 2-D dSiPM, we propose a novel 3-D digital SiPM, where the SPAD, designed for maximal photosensitive area, will be stacked in 3-D over the electronic circuits, designed in a CMOS node technology. All readout circuits will be implemented directly under the SPAD real estate, including quenching circuit, time-to-digital converter (TDC) and digital readout electronics. This paper focusses on the TDC element of this system, designed in TSMC CMOS 65 nm. This ring oscillator-based Vernier TDC requires only 25 × 50 μm2and 160 μW, and achieves 6.9 ps rms timing accuracy.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.008 | 0.003 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".