William David Coolidge (1873–1975). Biography with special reference to X-ray tubes
Why this work is in the frame
A frame that forgets how it found something cannot be audited. These are the routes that admitted this work.
Bibliographic record
Abstract
William Coolidge (1873–1975) is famous for the invention and development of the hot cathode X-ray tube, sometimes called the Coolidge X-ray tube, which immediately made the previous designs of gas X-ray tube obsolete. He was born in Hudson, Massachusetts, studied at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and graduated with a PhD in Physics from the University of Leipzig. In 1905 he joined the General Electric Company (GEC) Research Laboratory at Schenectady and in 1913 invented the Coolidge X-ray tube which is the prototype of modern apparatus. He was consultant in X-rays to GEC for some quarter of a century, 1945–1961. As well as his work with X-rays, he developed the first successful submarine detection system, with Irving Langmuir (1881–1957), and during World War II undertook research relating to radar, the atomic bomb, rockets and anti-submarine devices. He was also, during WWII appointed to President Roosevelt’s Advisory Committee on Uranium. He obtained 83 patents during his lifetime (all assigned to GEC). Coolidge spent his entire career with GEC, from 1905 when he joined the company at Schenectady to work in lamp research, until his death when he was an Emeritus Director of Research & Development. One of the most complete lists to be published of papers by Coolidge is found in the References.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it