Differential predation alters pigmentation in threespine stickleback (<i>Gasterosteus aculeatus</i>)
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Animal pigmentation plays a key role in many biological interactions, including courtship and predator avoidance. Sympatric benthic and limnetic ecotypes of threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) exhibit divergent pigment patterns. To test whether differential predation by cutthroat trout contributes to the differences in pigmentation seen between the ecotypes, we used a within‐generation selection experiment on F2 benthic–limnetic hybrids. After 10 months of differential selection, we compared the pigmentation of fish under trout predation to control fish not exposed to trout predation. We found that stickleback exhibited more lateral barring in ponds with trout predation. Ponds with trout were also less turbid, and a greater degree of barring was negatively correlated with the magnitude of turbidity across pond replicates. A more benthic diet, a proxy for habitat use, was also correlated with greater lateral barring and green dorsal pigmentation. These patterns suggest that differential exposure to cutthroat trout predation may explain the divergence in body pigmentation between benthic and limnetic ecotypes.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".