Mortgage in the Russian Empire (Mid-19th Century - First Quarter of the 20th Century): Historical and Legal Aspects
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Introduction: today mortgage is one of the most urgent problems of both society and legislation.A practical solution to this problem is hardly possible without studying the evolution of mortgages in the historical and legal aspect.The desire to improve the mortgage relations, to develop the conditions that take into account the interests of both the creditors and debtors, prompted the legislators to create the new forms of collateral; in this regard, the study of mortgage as an institution of collateral, showing its evolution in the Russian Empire is relevant.The purpose of this article is to analyze the process of mortgage development as a collateral form in the Imperial Russia in the historical and legal aspect.Methods: the study is based on the methods: the dialectical, historical and legal, complex, comparative law, system and structural ones, allowing studying the phenomena in the development and identifying the cause-and-effect relationships.Results: the author's point of view shown in the work is based on the legislation of the Russian Empire, as well as the works of legal scholars of the Imperial period concerning the pledge of real estate.The analysis of the rules governing the mortgage relations relating to real estate revealed the advantages of the lender over other persons in the studied period, as well as established that the right to pledge real estate had focused on the subject of collateral, and the pledgee had obtained satisfaction, as a rule, from its value.Conclusions: as a result of the study it was found that with the adoption of the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire in 1835, the legislation had become systematized.The Code of Laws of the Russian Empire was the general imperial and state code, and the provisions contained therein relating to the collateral relations were fundamental and valid throughout the territory of the Russian Empire.In addition, in the Russian Empire, after the abolition of serfdom, the system of mortgage lending became differentiated depending on the class, namely, the mortgagor's belonging to the estate.The issuance of mortgage loans to the nobles, as a rule, was made on more favorable terms than to the peasants.Also in the Russian Empire the mortgage relations became widespread in the 70-ies of the XIX century, after the abolition of serfdom, when the Russian Empire was formed by the State peasant land bank (founded in 1882), the State noble land bank (founded in 1885), and the mortgage became the activity of the special credit institutions.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".