Catalyzed Hydrothermal Carbonization with Process Liquid Recycling
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Catalyzed hydrothermal carbonization (CHTC) was used to produce hydrochar biofuel from wood chips at 240 °C in 1 h batches that included recycling of the process liquid. Infrared spectra showed changes in the chemical structure consistent with dehydration and decarboxylation. The CHTC hydrochar had higher heating values (HHV) of 28.3 MJ/kg, energy yield of 64%, and hydrogen-to-carbon (H/C) and oxygen-to-carbon (O/C) ratios similar to those of coal. The same process without the catalyst (HTC) produced a hydrochar with HHV of 27 MJ/kg, energy yield of 57%, and H/C and O/C ratios similar to those of lignite. Partial recycling of the CHTC process liquid resulted in a 5% increase in the energy yield; elemental composition, HHV, and scanning electron microscopic images of the CHTC hydrochar for different recycles were indistinguishable. Densified CHTC hydrochar pellets were 97% durable and hydrophobic when compared with wood pellets and torrefied-wood pellets, which was shown by water ingress measurements using an electrochemical cell with pellet electrodes. The CHTC process with recycling has the potential to provide a green hydrochar biofuel with excellent handling, storage, and transportation properties, that could be a suitable direct replacement for coal.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".