Modeling the Effect of Reaction Kinetics and Dispersion during Low-Salinity Waterflooding
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract The objective of this paper is to model low-salinity waterflooding by honoring physico-chemical complexity, namely, the effects of reaction kinetics and dispersion. Recent literature provides evidence for the potential of low-salinity water injection to improve oil recovery through wettability alteration through a complex network of reactions. However, there is lack of consensus with respect to the exact chemical species that are responsible for the alteration process. Therefore, in this study, we develop a a simplified binary multiphase reactive transport model that honors the general surface reaction for wettability alteration, but at the same time includes effects of reaction kinetics and dispersion in the governing equations. We lump the reactants, such as sodium, calcium, and petroleum acids, into two characteristic components based on their contribution to oil or water wetness. The wettability alteration process is modelled as a competition between these primary characteristic components to occupy the rock surface as described by reaction kinetics. The simulation results show a significant impact of reaction kinetics on the rate of wettability alteration compared to assuming instantaneous equilibrium. In the limiting case of a very slow reaction rate (Da ~ 0), low-salinity injection does not alter the wettability. Particularly, no effect on ultimate oil recovery is observed, regardless of the injected salinity level. For the case of an instantaneous reaction the ultimate oil recovery is sensitive to the injected fluid salinity. Moreover, during fast reactions (Da ~ 10-4), the wettability alteration front moves slower than the injected fluid front caused by excess salt in the solution that desorbs from the rock surface. The delay in wettability alteration is crucial to consider for an appropriate slug size design of low-salinity injection. Lastly, we observe that dispersion does not affect the ultimate oil recovery during wettability alteration as compared to reaction kinetics.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".