Invasive and Noninvasive Brain Stimulation in Parkinson's Disease: Clinical Effects and Future Perspectives
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In this review, we discuss the clinical and electrophysiological effects and the future directions of invasive and noninvasive brain stimulations in Parkinson's disease (PD). Deep brain stimulation (DBS) can improve motor symptoms in moderate to advanced PD. However, the optimal stimulation paradigm for nonmotor symptoms (NMS), freezing of gait, and the optimal timing of DBS are still under investigation. The findings of pathological oscillations and abnormal frequency to amplitude coupling provide models to develop adaptive DBS. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) revealed abnormal cortical excitability and plasticity in PD. Consecutive sessions of high-frequency, repetitive TMS on the motor cortex showed promising results. Paired TMS and DBS at specific times provided a novel way to investigate PD pathophysiology and have potential as a future treatment. Transcranial direct current stimulation or transcranial alternating current stimulation with multifocal electrodes or at specific phases of oscillation are also potential future strategies.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.002 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".