Response time optimization for drone-delivered automated external defibrillators
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) claims over 400,000 lives each year in North America and is one of the most time-sensitive medical emergencies. Drone-delivered automated external defibrillators (AEDs) have the potential to be a transformative innovation in the provision of emergency care for OHCA. In this paper, we propose a simulation-optimization framework to minimize the total number of drones required to meet a pre-specified response time goal, while guaranteeing a sufficient number of drones are located at each base. To do this, we develop a location-queuing model that is based on the p-median architecture, where each base constitutes an explicit M/M/d queue, and that incorporates estimated baseline response times to the demand points. We then develop a reformulation technique that exploits the baseline response times, allowing us to solve real-world instances to optimality using an off-the-shelf solver. To test our model, we develop a two-stage machine learning approach to simulate both the locations and baseline response times for future OHCAs. We demonstrate the application of our framework using eight years of real data from an area covering 26,000 square kilometres around Toronto, Canada. A modest number of drones are required to significantly reduce response times in all regions. Furthermore, an objective function focused on improving the 90th percentile is well-suited for use in practice because the model reduces the entire response time distribution, while providing equitable coverage in both cities and rural areas. Overall, this paper provides a realistic framework that can be leveraged by healthcare providers seeking to implement a drone network.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".