Wearable-Sensor-Based Detection and Prediction of Freezing of Gait in Parkinson’s Disease: A Review
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Freezing of gait (FOG) is a serious gait disturbance, common in mid- and late-stage Parkinson's disease, that affects mobility and increases fall risk. Wearable sensors have been used to detect and predict FOG with the ultimate aim of preventing freezes or reducing their effect using gait monitoring and assistive devices. This review presents and assesses the state of the art of FOG detection and prediction using wearable sensors, with the intention of providing guidance on current knowledge, and identifying knowledge gaps that need to be filled and challenges to be considered in future studies. This review searched the Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science databases to identify studies that used wearable sensors to detect or predict FOG episodes in Parkinson's disease. Following screening, 74 publications were included, comprising 68 publications detecting FOG, seven predicting FOG, and one in both categories. Details were extracted regarding participants, walking task, sensor type and body location, detection or prediction approach, feature extraction and selection, classification method, and detection and prediction performance. The results showed that increasingly complex machine-learning algorithms combined with diverse feature sets improved FOG detection. The lack of large FOG datasets and highly person-specific FOG manifestation were common challenges. Transfer learning and semi-supervised learning were promising for FOG detection and prediction since they provided person-specific tuning while preserving model generalization.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.004 | 0.003 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".