Hiccups: A Non-Systematic Review
Bibliographic record
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Hiccups are a universal phenomenon. They are usually benign and selflimited. Persistent or intractable hiccups, although rare, can be debilitating and may indicate the presence of an underlying pathological process. OBJECTIVE: To familiarize physicians with the pathophysiology, etiology, evaluation, and management of children with hiccups. METHODS: A search was conducted on December 10, 2019, in Pubmed Clinical Queries using the key terms "hiccup" OR "hiccough" OR "singultus". The selected publication types included all clinical trials (including open trials, non-randomized controlled trials, and randomized controlled trials), observational studies, and reviews (including meta-analysis and narrative reviews) published within the past 10 years. Only papers published in the English literature were included in this review. The information retrieved from the above search was used in the compilation of the present article. RESULTS: Overdistension of the stomach is the most commonly identifiable cause of acute hiccups, followed by gastroesophageal reflux and gastritis. Other causes of hiccups, notably persistent and intractable hiccups, include an underlying gastrointestinal, neurological, cardiovascular, pulmonary, infectious, and psychogenic disorder. Persistent or intractable hiccups can be a harbinger of serious medical pathology. A detailed history and thorough physical examination may provide clues for the etiology of the hiccups. The treatment of hiccups should be directed at the underlying cause whenever possible. Bouts of acute hiccups less than 48 hours rarely require medical intervention as they usually resolve within minutes. Treatment may be considered when hiccups are bothersome, persistent, or intractable. Treatment modalities include lifestyle changes, physical maneuvers, pharmacotherapy and, very rarely, surgical intervention. CONCLUSION: Acute hiccups are usually benign and self-limiting. Persistent or intractable hiccups can be a harbinger of serious medical pathology. The underlying cause should be treated if possible. There are no formal guidelines for the treatment of hiccups. Currently, most of the methods proposed are based on case reports and anecdotal evidence. Terminating an episode of hiccups can be very challenging for a clinician but may tremendously improve the patient's quality of life. It is hoped that future well-designed and better-powered studies will provide us with more information on the efficacy of various treatment modalities for hiccups.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.008 | 0.036 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.011 | 0.009 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.016 | 0.016 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.014 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".