Disorder-Features in Exfoliated Graphene from Variable Intercalation Times and Intercalant-Mix
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Efficient exfoliation of relatively good-quality graphene with high-yield from graphite is critical for its extensive application in different emerging technologies. The cost-implication when undertaken via electrochemical exfoliation makes upscaling even more likely. In addition, the ability to constructively tune the final graphene properties (in terms of the defect metrics in the graphitic lattice) to fit a specific required application could be achieved by controlling operational parameters adopted during the intercalation and exfoliation steps. In a recent study, we demonstrated a one-step electrochemical exfoliation process carried out in an inorganic electrolyte containing ammonium phosphate [1]. Phosphate groups on the resulting graphene led to a thermally stable material. The present study evaluates the incorporation of phosphate functionalization during the intercalation step of a two-step electrochemical exfoliation process. Here-in, a systematic evaluation of the nature of defects is elucidated with respect to varying intercalation times and intercalant mix using an acid-blend containing sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and phosphoric acid (H3PO4). The type and location (edge or grain boundary-type), and relative concentration (%) of available defects is discussed with respect to increasing the intercalation times slightly beyond the point it attains a threshold intercalation voltage. Thermal stability of the graphene has also been explored based on the quantity of phosphoric acid content in the intercalant-mix. The exfoliated graphene sheets were characterized using Scanning Electron Microscopy, X-ray Diffraction, Thermal Gravimetric Analysis, X-ray Photoelectron and Raman Spectroscopy in detail to quantify defects and phosphorus contents in the doped-graphene framework. A thermally stable graphene was obtained with a constant “boundary-layer type” defect signature retained for increasing phosphoric acid in the mix. A shorter time to achieve the threshold intercalation voltage was observed with increasing H3PO4-acid content. This study provides a facile and energy efficient recipe for synthesizing graphene nanostructures with signature defects relevant for use in energy storage and water treatment applications.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".