Evaluation of Long-Term Impacts of CO2 Leakage on Groundwater Quality Using Hydrochemical Data from a Natural Analogue Site in South Korea
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Three hydrochemical types of CO2-rich water (i.e., Na-HCO3, Ca-Na-HCO3 and Ca-HCO3) occur together in the silicate bedrock (granite and gneiss) of Gangwon Province in South Korea. As a natural analogue of geological carbon storage (GCS), this can provide implications for the environmental impacts of the leakage of CO2 from deep GCS sites. By using hydrochemical and isotopic datasets that were collected for previous and current studies, this study aimed to carefully scrutinize the hydrochemical differences in the three water types with an emphasis on providing a better understanding of the impacts of long-term CO2 leakage on groundwater quality (especially the enrichments of minor and trace metals). As a result, the Na-HCO3 type CO2-rich water contained higher Li, Rb and Cs than the Ca-HCO3 type, whereas Fe, Mn and Sr were higher in the Ca-HCO3 type than in the Na-HCO3 type despite the similar geological setting, which indicate that the hydrochemical differences were caused during different geochemical evolutionary processes. The δ18O and δD values and tritium concentrations indicated that the Na-HCO3 type was circulated through a deep and long pathway for a relatively long residence time in the subsurface, while the Ca-HCO3 type was strongly influenced by mixing with recently recharged water. These results were supported by the results of principal component analysis (PCA), whose second component showed that the Na-HCO3 type had a significant relation with alkali metals such as Li, Rb and Cs as well as Na and K and also had a strong relationship with Al, F and U, indicating an extensive water-rock interaction, while the Ca-HCO3 type was highly correlated with Ca, Mg, Sr, Fe and Mn, indicating mixing and reverse cation exchange during its ascent with hydrogeochemical evolution. In particular, the concentrations of Fe, Mn, U and Al in the CO2-rich water, the result of long-term water-rock interaction and cation exchange that was enhanced by CO2 leakage into silicate bedrock, exceeded drinking water standards. The study results show that the leakage of CO2 gas and CO2-rich fluid into aquifers and the subsequent hydrogeochemical processes can degrade groundwater quality by mobilizing trace elements in rocks and consequently may pose a health risk.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".