First World War Internment in Canada: Enemy Aliens and the Blurring of the Military/Civilian Distinction
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In Canada during the First World War, where aliens of enemy origin were increasingly without work and destitute, internment offered a solution. Interned as prisoners of war (POWs)—a designation that sanctioned voluntary work unrelated to the war—such individuals were sent to frontier labour camps. Their POW designation, however, afforded them certain protections under the laws of war while their status as civilian prisoners suggested they were entitled to even greater consideration than captured combatants. Yet it was precisely their status as civilians that obviated any such consideration. They were not POWs as was conventionally understood. They were interned civilians without rights—enemy aliens—and would be treated as such. This blurring of the military/civilian distinction in Canada would lead to the mistreatment of interned enemy aliens and in the process define the First World War Canadian internment experience.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.004 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.049 | 0.014 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.007 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.007 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.007 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.008 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".