Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract FPSOs usually require refrigeration, for removal of condensates and/or water before export of produced gas, or for treatment of gas to be used on board as fuel gas. This paper describes on-board refrigeration using a new combination of different concepts, none of which individually are new, to deliver refrigeration for FPSOs with environmental, cost, space and weight advantages. Usually, FPSO owners specify a non-flammable refrigerant, and most current applications use R-134a refrigerant. However, R-134a is a hydrofluorocarbon with high global warming potential (GWP = 1300). These high-GWP refrigerants are being phased out under the 2016 Kigali amendment to the Montreal protocol, and are already banned for new applications in many European countries. Low-GWP alternatives to R-134a include hydrocarbons such as propane (GWP = 3), ammonia (GWP = 0), hydrofluoroolefines (HFOs) and CO2 (GWP = 1). HFOs are new synthetic refrigerants with GWP generally <150, but are flammable, though less flammable than propane. CO2 was widely used as a refrigerant up to the 1930s, particularly in marine applications, but was superseded by early synthetic refrigerants such as R-12 and R-22, which were then phased out in the 1990s after discovery of ozone depletion effects. CO2 is limited in air-cooled applications at high ambient temperature conditions such as tropical climates, due to the high-pressure side of the system becoming supercritical, leading to high operating pressure and low efficiency. However, FPSOs mainly operate in deep water, and even where surface water temperature is high, say +30 deg.C as in the tropics, cold water below +20 deg.C, can be found at depths of 100-200 m, even at the equator. Use of cold seawater via deep inlet risers is already used for some other FPSO applications, and if used for cooling in CO2 refrigeration systems, the system can operate at subcritical conditions, power becomes competitive and an optimised CO2 refrigeration system can have lower power, smaller footprint and lower weight, compared to a similar optimised R-134a refrigeration system. CO2 is now a viable refrigerant for FPSOs, with environmental, cost, weight and operational advantages over R-134a. Using CO2 as above is a new combination of known concepts, none of which individually are new, to achieve a new and better refrigeration outcome specifically for FPSOs. It is not a proprietary technology of any company.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".