Colson Whitehead’s History of the United States

Since the publication of his first novel twenty years ago, Colson Whitehead has become one of the most lauded, prized, taught, and studied American novelists writing today. Winner of the National Book Award and the Pulitzer Prize, recipient of a MacArthur “Genius” grant and the nearly-as-lucrative honor of Oprah’s Book Club, and the most contemporary novelist included in the Norton Anthology of African American Literature, Whitehead stands at the very center of the contemporary canon. According to critics and scholars alike, part of what makes Whitehead so singular is his ability to write across a vast array of literary and mass-cultural forms: detective and encyclopedic fiction (The Intuitionist [1999], John Henry Days [2001]), contemporary satire and the bildungsroman (Apex Hides the Hurt [2006], Sag Harbor [2009]), and more recently, postapocalyptic zombie fiction and the meta-slave narrative (Zone One [2011], The Underground Railroad [2016]). Indeed, Whitehead’s play with genre is so well-known and self-conscious that he has even joked about it publicly in the pages of The New York Times. Before the release of his zombie novel, Zone One, Whitehead published an essay titled “Picking a Genre” (2009), in which he describes his artistic process: “If you’re anything like me, figuring out what to write next can be a real hassle. To make things easier, I modified my dartboard a few years ago. Now, when I’m overwhelmed by the untold stories out there, I head down to the basement, throw a dart and see where it lands. Try it for yourself!” (23). What follows is a list of targets on that dartboard, both a catalog and a send-up of the genres that characterize contemporary American fiction: from the “Encyclopedic” novel for the “postmodern, or postmodern-curious,” to the “Ethnic Bildungsroman,” “Little Known Historical Fact,” and “Southern Novel of Black Misery” (23). Here Whitehead is satirizing not only his own career but also the phenomenon that critics such as Andrew Hoberek, Theodore Martin, and Jeremy Rosen have called the contemporary “genre turn”: that is, the spate of literary novelists in recent years who have drawn on the “frameworks” of mass-market genres (Rosen). By now, these so-called “literary genre writers” are familiar—Margaret Atwood, Michael Chabon, Jennifer Egan, Kazuo Ishiguro, Cormac McCarthy, and Viet Thanh Nguyen—as is the array of those genres themselves: detective, dystopian, fantasy, Western, and postapocalyptic fiction. What interests me here, however, is the process by which historical fiction—despite its mass-market popularity and its “declassé” status for much of the twentieth century—has dropped off that list.1 After all, every one of the writers just mentioned has published a historical novel and in some cases, several. While Whitehead’s own oeuvre represents a veritable catalog of genres, it also chronicles nearly two hundred years of American history.2 If we rearrange his novels not by publication date but loosely by their historical settings, we end up following Whitehead from the slave narrative and folklore of the nineteenth century (The Underground Railroad and John Henry Days); to the hard-boiled, civil-rights noir and ethnic bildungsroman of the mid- and late twentieth century (The Intuitionist, Sag Harbor, and The Nickel Boys [2019]); to a kind of postapocalyptic history of the early twenty-first century (Zone One). From this vantage, it seems clear that Whitehead is not only a writer of genre fiction but a prolific writer of one genre in particular: historical fiction. Yet this is somehow not what we mean when we say that these literary novelists have “turned to genre.” Perhaps it is their historical fiction that we are referring to when we describe their work as “literary” in the first place. In the four decades since the early 1980s, the American literary field has become dominated, and increasingly defined, by fictions of history. During this period, novelists, prize committees, literary critics, and canon warriors seized on the prestige, authority, and pedagogical potential of historical fiction as a means of expanding the largely homogenous Anglophone literary canon, diversifying cultural and academic institutions, and defending the novel’s place in an increasingly competitive media ecology.3 While previous scholarship attributes the twentieth-century novel’s fascination with history to a post-Cold War “absence of an overarching narrative” (Cohen 27), “symbolic compensation” for a postmodern “crisis” in historical consciousness (Jameson, Antinomies 259; Postmodernism 22), and shifting theories of historiography (Elias), this investigation contends that contemporary fiction’s historical turn is the product of a series of phenomena far more local to the literary field itself. These include structural changes in the National Endowment for the Arts, evolving notions of literary prestige in prize organizations such as the Pulitzer and the National Book Award, and fundamental transformations in the scholarship and syllabi of university English departments—all of which have either expressly or implicitly promoted historical fiction as contemporary literature’s most prestigious and politically potent genre.4 Data gleaned from the Open Syllabus Project—an online resource that has aggregated more than 350,000 syllabi for university English courses—suggest that the majority of the most-taught novels published after 1945 (and the majority of the most-taught novels published after 1980) are set in the historical past.5 Likewise, my own research in the history of major literary prizes reveals that while historical fiction accounted for just of novels for a major American prize in the and the genre accounted for of by the end of the only at the turn of the twenty-first with novels set in the of since a in the first of the twenty-first century While the literary history of the years a in the of writers these of cultural my research that African and writers in this have in the of historical the most-taught novels by writers published after are historical of the novels by writers to be for a major American prize and but place in the this an investigation the historical that Whitehead’s of work kind of of American not only one of the most novelists but also the of the contemporary literary field that Whitehead’s career The Intuitionist as an academic satire that is both a product and an of the canon of the and I that Whitehead’s first literary canon in a and historical the novel in the of Whitehead’s years at a for The Intuitionist and a historical of the that have American literature’s historical from the first novel to one of his most this investigation to The Underground Railroad as a in historical fiction and the genre of the meta-slave after years in which both have on the novel’s and to the genre it I that The Underground Railroad both the recent history and the of contemporary of In The Intuitionist a at the academic and that the historical The Underground Railroad as a to the in which that and its have the contemporary literary The Intuitionist the of a in a of New the novel the is in by the for of the and the that the two one we have the in the of in and by both and the we have the the of who in with the on a and of we early is not only a Intuitionist but the first in the To make even more the for an slave who to which is has just a an in of The Intuitionist have it as postmodern a with a and a history of the Yet while scholars have on the novel’s historical nearly have of it a Historical to an early since The One critics to the novel as a kind of seems to be the of as to The Intuitionist place. 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In the novel’s as first the the one of those are to see just that than the a a but I the is the first of in the novel where and the of The are to as the first in Here Whitehead an but of The Intuitionist place in the of the of a that Whitehead in a essay Whitehead also this on the of the novel’s the of The Intuitionist in the and decades a novel In what like a of is in a the novel to the the and the decades in that the of so African American In this The Intuitionist on a clear historical one with a than historical fiction as it is and Whitehead an to what we can of as historical fiction’s is, an Intuitionist historical I to this at The Intuitionist of historical fiction. To just what kind of historical novel this is, however, we first to in to the of in which it place but to far more for The the of the and early the of one more genre to Whitehead’s dartboard, I that The Intuitionist is, in an academic a novel and by Whitehead’s years at and the canon that as much as the of the novel investigation of the that investigation on the and of the The of The Intuitionist as an to but it is to the scholars and who it in their we of early of of the who to and on the even a writer to in the but to place his in of the who as and have a Whitehead’s is in one early when the describes who a for an of the the field of has its can with the and and means and a of in the so a for a in there, a on he can out from and he even has his in his at this very on a on the history of is to that the has that even he is a throw in the Intuitionist where be with the of not just the canon. this makes the the and the is not only in but also on the much like the that the English and the of what the the of as that the of the and canon to the of it the to the of the by for The of the American in the Whitehead in even to to that are not on contemporary prize in essay by that a by the of the major literary a of literary than some of in part to the of and ethnic that from of the and the at and as more than a in the of academic In this the are not Whitehead’s very own who their as as much like or as he more contemporary the of the for in the of the are the with the and when has the of like it in and is just the kind of that can when to the on the the and New not only for a of the but also for an end to the of in that as a kind of From at the of the the New that largely a of literary scholarship to by historical to the center of literary has this as the of the in literary a that prizes up of the and the to this is to for of the the and the both one in as a to and in a or to and of both it what as a contemporary of to the of and the like the that their its If their is from become in their own in their own Likewise, Henry in his that this is one where to a from the which is of the of in the of in this of canon is the of is the of it has become the of an and in which or of to the or of their or the of their cultural the only one and to the of American literature’s historical that the two of the canon in their for a historical consciousness it as as the of historical fiction as the genre to that After all, what for the to the that literary both history and than to and a canon of novels with the historical and with the that its John has that of a historical and and that in to canon, one have to to the of from to this seems it is not to the list of in the university English it is to to in which and writers at a of to the means of literary what to this than by for the writing of historical have published in but it is also a novel of the nineteenth In this the of literary in the and early to and to both have and their by these in the not part of some historical 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African American In in the of his as Whitehead in to African American to a series of that become in the and the of on American literature’s In the reveals what the in the work of writers such as Henry and an in contemporary literary by of a to American literary history both and a of scholarship to history from the American literary canon. it that at of this narrative is in the of a history and a for by and for of Whitehead in the for a in literary history have the more to of African American at that the in the of an the on Whitehead to of the and even at in a of but a in Whitehead’s when the not In Whitehead’s when to only a and to the for According to the as a of one to Henry the at to on the that the of and is to to not only his at have the of Colson Whitehead but also his writing from this a for The in the of The New York Book and in as the of own to the canon in the of detective In the follows detective as he to the that either for or for the The Intuitionist, academic satire is with has from the up with a and who we are has a than a New is for the the canon as a in an this he the the at who the work for In the he even off a in the canon and the to be and in In this the of a to Whitehead’s own canon for the the of a vast literary and to the university and its history. The Intuitionist a on as to down the of the late what can only be as and of the in a and Intuitionist in a for as of literary history in in the the own history of an but In the of this which Whitehead describes as that has taught, of a by this of a far with this on is to to that the can only so and the of to the in an to with history. From the very of the novel, the as what has called a of its from a slave like to a historical that is as as it is from of the to a on the Whitehead from the of that the have to even more in its the much he or the years that to the In this the stands as a of the and its very is that Whitehead the of the its first and only of of the and out the Whitehead is the is the of this and this and this and that the one on first to out to the of that the the is a this the and of The on from the The of the of the the of the as it off the the the of the as up of and to in own and from to and The first and most to say about this is that it is the most of an in of English the and its the by with it the who from of is a an one Whitehead’s has not only to but also to the and its the from the that the a history I to to the with which I that Whitehead’s novel represents a kind of Intuitionist historical fiction set in the of but to the of the canon at that the of the and New that Whitehead’s as a and The Intuitionist to history and such as and from of but from a novel Whitehead it in his is with what is In its of The Intuitionist previous of historical fiction in that are of the genre at the turn of the twenty-first that the of the historical novel be a but a of historical By Whitehead’s is not at but the first to field and a of Whitehead’s of just such a the novel’s the of historical up the and of While has contemporary historical fiction for what he its and its of the of the Whitehead a of in part to such as a of to to the of and If the novel to what has as American history we from 22), that is Whitehead is that we In this The Intuitionist its from history in to the of cultural Likewise, the novel from in the not only the but also a history that one of he this Intuitionist Whitehead’s novel is both and but not in the that and have postmodern historical fiction up the of that the is and seems that the to write and history be a at an to the at most a to from In The Intuitionist, however, the to and is not at but to Whitehead’s the novel makes for that to history his Whitehead has to out to on the of the In the pages of The Intuitionist, to the for Yet this not as a but as a of on to in the in the historical and down to write If the of the novel is with the process of and the that its Whitehead’s Whitehead a of and by writing the While Whitehead has and prestige his his recent the genre of the meta-slave narrative most novel to by critics and scholars alike, The Underground Railroad both the National Book Award and the Pulitzer Prize, for Oprah’s Book Club, and is for by the of In an on a of the novel’s and mass-market that the has just so and Indeed, as scholars and have it is more than a that an who the of the “Southern Novel of Black Misery” can his own in that of the genre as a literary and years the publication of The Intuitionist and The Underground Whitehead’s two novels as two of a literary the of the career and the of the literary field that has novels the of on the both and to the historical of the and both on and the it to the of Yet Whitehead’s first novel a at the canon that the historical turn in American The Underground Railroad as a to the in which that and its have the contemporary literary In the nearly decades since and (and for a literary canon that the of of historical fiction by writers by the syllabi and prize has become more or the in the contemporary canon. In this the meta-slave the most prestigious literary genre of the as a of the and pedagogical potential of the historical novel and its In recent however, scholars and critics have called both the and the of contemporary of has the in and the that the slave a for the has the that historical is and and to of canon and to of African American fiction that expressly an the While and The Underground as more of the phenomena the novel of both the and the of the meta-slave narrative The Intuitionist, Whitehead’s contemporary narrative of to its literary of which the first as an Whitehead his of his as for the of the novel, in which his from by in an with of and a in the that the Whitehead which from the the work of a previous where the the novel to slave of the nineteenth its are the meta-slave of the late twentieth to and in the novel is a who Whitehead on the of one In this Whitehead in the nearly the history of the slave narrative in his first drawn from the of and his from the of novel published it is that most-taught American novel published after 1945 in the of writer the meta-slave narrative Whitehead’s to is While the novel not in the of The Underground it Whitehead’s writing by and as Whitehead the In Whitehead has to have to own you’re not to with Whitehead’s the has The Underground Railroad in the I his these the pages of Whitehead’s novel and that years after the literary genre that it stands and by To it Whitehead’s to some one can write meta-slave only The most in the novel not as it but in the in where as a in the of the of Underground The of the the to to the of about the history of their a the to see the of the their to see its like In the like the that the novel than it the historical in the from to the the to the American the of the historical but it is by Western, and of the and its In to make this in its to as one of or as to in a of from on the and on the has that postmodern of this is to the While this is while at the that a in a by when Underground a of the and a part of its of the historical In of the that the not of of the but of by in the In from is to a that has the and the and by as is only of that the of the when on the of on the with the while the of and as a is the of on the the of the novel’s with a of work at a Whitehead that both the for and the of historical fiction are to the is not the he an field of in the and the for a to work the that is both and of with a when and The be in but the and are In this Whitehead’s of both and what describes as of in of historical the that historical is a of While the of literary historical that is in to Whitehead that by a and on the be to the and to the If of has since the to the of American to (and Whitehead’s decades that their is not when the of of the Whitehead the of the or that recent in the to the of the of the to a of Here The Underground Railroad as both a novel of the meta-slave narrative and a of that of the of is to the of the historical is following a from to to a of Whitehead to a of the more than a Likewise, Whitehead to historical in and the novel to of in The Intuitionist, the of The Underground Railroad is and historical from the of the and to the and of that the The of the novel even to the (and American phenomenon of contemporary the that the of African American While the of The Intuitionist place the novel in a of these historical in the of The Underground far more far more to the of to In are and is on These with such in novel as in as has that novel be set in the late twentieth with the from of the In to of in is as to the however, Whitehead’s to the of the history of meta-slave as The Known and novel not so much the of across as it those the of itself. While and a kind of either in or in the to Whitehead’s even in the novel’s which that By The Underground Railroad with not but a from the and and a that is just that American slave in both their and twentieth-century have also as of The Underground for its across and from the of its this as a of Whitehead’s in The Intuitionist that of historical are and more than Yet it also the to the of Whitehead is not where to much as The Underground Railroad the history of contemporary American fiction’s most prestigious it also of that genre at after and and and the literary history of American can only as and the and of Underground Railroad both as and from to the In Whitehead’s novel, The Nickel published to the on to become both a and a the the novel as a of the next in an historical In this to the Pulitzer Prize, and National Book New York The Underground Colson Whitehead of American history the of two to a in The Nickel Boys is a narrative that a American novelist writing at the of his The The Nickel Boys Whitehead on the of as and of the of his for his in the is not clear what Whitehead’s career in the only years of he has a of writing to a more to as one of the most American novelists of the twenty-first and as a in contemporary fiction’s historical Whitehead for the have his While I not that Whitehead to to his the both and are for stories of to are for the of genre or at literary

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