Behavioral model inference of black-box software using deep neural networks
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Many software engineering tasks, such as testing, and anomaly detection can benefit from the ability to infer a behavioral model of the software.Most existing inference approaches assume access to code to collect execution sequences. In this paper, we investigate a black-box scenario, where the system under analysis cannot be instrumented, in this granular fashion.This scenario is particularly prevalent with control systems' log analysis in the form of continuous signals. In this situation, an execution trace amounts to a multivariate time-series of input and output signals, where different states of the system correspond to different `phases` in the time-series. The main challenge is to detect when these phase changes take place. Unfortunately, most existing solutions are either univariate, make assumptions on the data distribution, or have limited learning power.Therefore, we propose a hybrid deep neural network that accepts as input a multivariate time series and applies a set of convolutional and recurrent layers to learn the non-linear correlations between signals and the patterns over time.We show how this approach can be used to accurately detect state changes, and how the inferred models can be successfully applied to transfer-learning scenarios, to accurately process traces from different products with similar execution characteristics. Our experimental results on two UAV autopilot case studies indicate that our approach is highly accurate (over 90% F1 score for state classification) and significantly improves baselines (by up to 102% for change point detection).Using transfer learning we also show that up to 90% of the maximum achievable F1 scores in the open-source case study can be achieved by reusing the trained models from the industrial case and only fine tuning them using as low as 5 labeled samples, which reduces the manual labeling effort by 98%.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".