Pride and Prejudice: Employment Discrimination against Openly Gay Men in the United States
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This article presents the first large-scale audit study of discrimination against openly gay men inthe United States. Pairs of fictitious résumés were sent in response to 1,769 job postings in sevenstates. One résumé in each pair was randomly assigned experience in a gay campus organization,and the other résumé was assigned a control organization. Two main findings have emerged.First, in some but not all states, there was significant discrimination against the fictitiousapplicants who appeared to be gay. This geographic variation in the level of discriminationappears to reflect regional differences in attitudes and anti-discrimination laws. Second,employers who emphasized the importance of stereotypically male heterosexual traits wereparticularly likely to discriminate against openly gay men. Beyond these particular findings, thisstudy advances the audit literature more generally by covering multiple regions and byhighlighting how audit techniques may be used to identify stereotypes that affect employmentdecisions in real labor markets.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".