Exogenous Ketones Lower Post-exercise Acyl-Ghrelin and GLP-1 but Do Not Impact Ad libitum Energy Intake
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Ketosis and exercise are both associated with alterations in perceived appetite and modification of appetite-regulating hormones. This study utilized a ketone ester ( R )-3-hydroxybutyl ( R )-3-hydroxybutyrate (KE) to examine the impact of elevated ketone body D-β-hydroxybutyrate (βHB) during and after a bout of exercise on appetite-related hormones, appetite perception, and ad libitum energy intake over a 2 h post-exercise period. In a randomized crossover trial, 13 healthy males and females (age: 23.6 ± 2.4 years; body mass index: 25.7 ± 3.2 kg·m −2 ) completed an exercise session @ 70% VO 2peak for 60 min on a cycling ergometer and consumed either: (1) Ketone monoester (KET) (0.5 g·kg −1 pre-exercise + 0.25 g·kg −1 post-exercise); or (2) isocaloric dextrose control (DEX). Transient ketonaemia was achieved with βHB concentrations reaching 5.0 mM (range 4.1–6.1 mM) during the post-exercise period. Relative to the dextrose condition, acyl-ghrelin ( P = 0.002) and glucagon-like peptide-1 ( P = 0.038) were both reduced by acute ketosis immediately following exercise. AUC for acyl-ghrelin was lower in KET compared to DEX ( P = 0.001), however there were no differences in AUC for GLP-1 ( P = 0.221) or PYY ( P = 0.654). Perceived appetite (hunger, P = 0.388; satisfaction, P = 0.082; prospective food consumption, P = 0.254; fullness, P = 0.282) and 2 h post-exercise ad libitum energy intake ( P = 0.488) were not altered by exogenous ketosis. Although KE modifies homeostatic regulators of appetite, it does not appear that KE acutely alters energy intake during the post-exercise period in healthy adults.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".