Reinforcement Learning-Based Physical-Layer Authentication for Controller Area Networks
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In controller area networks (CANs), electronic control units (ECUs) such as telematics ECUs and on-board diagnostic ports must protect the message exchange from spoofing attacks. In this paper, we propose a CAN bus authentication framework that exploits physical layer features of the messages, including message arrival intervals and signal voltages, and applies reinforcement learning to choose the authentication mode and parameter. By applying the Dyna architecture and using a double estimator, this scheme improves the utility in terms of authentication accuracy without changing the CAN bus protocol or the ECU components and requiring knowledge of the spoofing model. We also propose a deep learning version to further improve the authentication efficiency for the CAN bus. The learning scheme applies a hierarchical structure to reduce the exploration time, and uses two deep neural networks to compress the high-dimensional state space and to fully exploit the physical authentication experiences. We provide the computational complexity and the performance analysis. Experimental results verify the theoretical analysis and show that our proposed schemes significantly improve the authentication accuracy as compared with benchmark schemes.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.002 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".