Bibliographic record
Abstract
Studies of negative hydrogen ions (NHI), such as, H– and D–, are important from both practical and fundamental points of view. One of the reasons for their practical importance has to do with heating tokamak plasmas by external beams of NHI. Another practical use is the injection of NHI in high-power proton accelerator facilities to enhance their performance. In addition, NHI are also important for studies of opacities of the atmospheres of the Sun and of A-type stars. We present a classical analytical description of NHI in the situation where the underlying hydrogen (or deuterium) atom constitutes a rapid subsystem while the outer electron represents a slow subsystem. We focus on the case where the inner electron is in a circular state, so that the subsystem “nucleus plus inner electron” does not have the average electric dipole moment — in distinction to previous studies where the presence of the average dipole moment was the crucial requirement. By using the separation of rapid and slow subsystems, we show analytically that there is a classical bound state in such system and studied its parameters. In particular, we calculate analytically the primary frequency of the radiation of such system. This could be used for its experimental detection. The states that we found for the above systems could be considered as classical counterparts of the double-excited states of NHI previously studied in the literature in frames of quantum mechanics. The existence of classical counterparts of the double-excited states of NHI is a counterintuitive result.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.006 | 0.001 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".