Infant Anthropometry and Growth Velocity Before 6 Months are Associated with Breastfeeding Practices and the Presence of Subclinical Mastitis and Maternal Intestinal Protozoa in Indigenous Communities in Guatemala
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The possibility that maternal health status and breastfeeding practices contribute to growth faltering before 6 mo is underexplored. This longitudinal study investigated whether indicators of subclinical mastitis (SCM) and breast inflammation, maternal fecal-oral contamination, and/or breastfeeding practices were associated with infant anthropometry or growth velocity before 6 mo. Indigenous Mam-Mayan mother-infant dyads (n = 140) were recruited. Breast milk was collected at early (<6 wk) and established (4–6 mo) lactation when maternal and infant anthropometry were measured. Milk Na:K ratio as an indicator of SCM and concentrations of 4 proinflammatory cytokines were measured. Maternal stool samples were examined for the presence of intestinal parasites including nonpathogenic protozoa (Endolimax nana, Iodamoeba bütschlii, Entamoeba coli, Blastocystis hominis). Questionnaires characterized breastfeeding and hygiene practices. Multiple linear regression identified factors associated with infant growth attainment [weight-for-age z-score (WAZ), length-for-age z-score (LAZ), and head circumference-for-age z-score (HCAZ)] and growth velocity (expressed as change per day from early to established lactation). Multiple logistic regression identified factors associated with increased odds of underweight, stunting, and low head circumference at both lactation stages. A higher Na:K ratio, individual nonpathogenic protozoa, and specific breastfeeding and hygiene practices were associated with impaired growth before 6 wk and at 4–6 mo in exclusively breastfed infants. Growth velocity for weight was inversely associated with Entamoeba coli but cranial growth was associated positively with Iodamoeba bütschlii whereas feeding colostrum in early lactation was protective and decreased the odds of an HCAZ < −2 SD. Finally, the presence of SCM in early lactation increased the likelihood of both WAZ < −2 SD and LAZ < −2 SD by 6 wk. Prevention of SCM can improve early infant weight, but measures that promote the feeding of colostrum and reduce exposure to fecal-oral contamination might be required to minimize infant growth faltering in breastfed infants.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".