Risk Factors in the Oil Industry: An Upstream and Downstream Analysis
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In this paper we examine the drivers of stock market value in the upstream (producers) and downstream segments (petroleum refiners) of the oil industry.Using a sample of U.S. firms we find that stock returns of upstream and downstream firms follow stock market and oil price returns. Moreover, the upstream firm stock returns are sensitive to changes in the Canadian dollar, an important oil trade partner of the U.S., to natural gas returns and its volatility, but not to oil return volatility.Both the upstream and downstream segments present asymmetric changes regarding oil return changes. Stock returns of the oil industry respond asymmetrically to oil returns, i.e., positive oil returns had a greater impact than oil price drops in the period 1998-2004. Before 1997 we do not find any asymmetric effects, and after 2004, they are only statistically significant in the upstream segment. Overall, the evidence for asymmetric effects is more consistent across measures and time in the upstream than in the downstream segment.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.004 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".