Bibliographic record
Abstract
ABSTRACT The faint young Sun problem has been of great concern to astrophysicists and paleoclimatologists at least for the past five decades. Solar evolution models predict that the luminosity of the Sun 4.6 billion yr ago was less than 75 per cent of what it is today. This would mean that all water on Earth was frozen, and thus life could not have evolved as we know it. We attempt to show here that the variable physical constants (VPCs) approach, wherein constants are treated as scalar fields, could naturally resolve the problem. We use an analytical model that predicts the solar luminosity to be lower in the past to show that by properly including the VPCs in the model, the faint young Sun problem is mostly resolved: The young Sun flux intercepted by Earth was only 6 per cent lower 4.6 Gyr ago than it is today. We introduce the concept of cosmological and local energies in the context of VPC scalar fields, which is compliant with general relativity and cosmology: The cosmological energy is not available for conversion into thermal and radiative energies, whereas the local energy is.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.005 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".