Serendipitous Doping in Nickel Oxide upon Microwave‐Induced Low‐Temperature Crystallization Enhances Efficiency of Perovskite Solar Cells
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Bibliographic record
Abstract
Solution‐processed nickel oxide (NiO x ) requires high temperatures (≈300 °C) and a long time (up to 1 h) to crystallize from precursors. Herein, thin films of NiO x are successfully crystallized at significantly low processing temperatures of ≈130 °C within a few minutes utilizing microwave irradiation. Microwave‐annealed NiO x (MWA‐NiO x ) shows high electrical conductivity and transmittance comparable with those of conventional thermally annealed NiO x (CTA‐NiO x ). NiO x crystallization occurs by ohmic heating mechanisms in the indium tin oxide layer, which simultaneously facilitates the diffusion of In and Sn metal cations into the NiO x layer. Consequently, the chemical composition in the MWA‐NiO x layer shows that both Ni 2+ and Ni >3+ species are reduced, which is infeasible with CTA processes, where a decrease in one species necessitates an increase in another. MWA‐NiO x is incorporated as a hole transport layer in triple‐cation perovskite (Cs 0.05 (MA 0.17 FA 0.83 ) 0.95 Pb(I 0.83 Br 0.17 ) 3 )‐based solar cells. The short‐circuit current and open‐circuit voltage are enhanced compared with those of CTA‐NiO x devices owing to the combined effects of enhanced conductivity, reduced Ni >3+ composition, and better energy‐level alignment. This proposed crystallization technique of using microwave irradiation could be an effective alternative to conventional processes in improving the suitability of NiO x for optoelectronic applications.
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Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it