Serendipitous Doping in Nickel Oxide upon Microwave‐Induced Low‐Temperature Crystallization Enhances Efficiency of Perovskite Solar Cells
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Solution‐processed nickel oxide (NiOx) requires high temperatures (≈300 °C) and a long time (up to 1 h) to crystallize from precursors. Herein, thin films of NiOx are successfully crystallized at significantly low processing temperatures of ≈130 °C within a few minutes utilizing microwave irradiation. Microwave‐annealed NiOx (MWA‐NiOx) shows high electrical conductivity and transmittance comparable with those of conventional thermally annealed NiOx (CTA‐NiOx). NiOx crystallization occurs by ohmic heating mechanisms in the indium tin oxide layer, which simultaneously facilitates the diffusion of In and Sn metal cations into the NiOx layer. Consequently, the chemical composition in the MWA‐NiOx layer shows that both Ni2+ and Ni>3+ species are reduced, which is infeasible with CTA processes, where a decrease in one species necessitates an increase in another. MWA‐NiOx is incorporated as a hole transport layer in triple‐cation perovskite (Cs0.05(MA0.17FA0.83)0.95Pb(I0.83Br0.17)3)‐based solar cells. The short‐circuit current and open‐circuit voltage are enhanced compared with those of CTA‐NiOx devices owing to the combined effects of enhanced conductivity, reduced Ni>3+ composition, and better energy‐level alignment. This proposed crystallization technique of using microwave irradiation could be an effective alternative to conventional processes in improving the suitability of NiOx for optoelectronic applications.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".