Carroll’s CSR Pyramid: An Empirical Investigation of SME CSR Orientation
Bibliographic record
Abstract
The corporate social responsibility responsibly (CSR) pyramid (Carroll, 1991) plays a substantive role in business and social theory, and research on it is incomplete if it disregards the full gambit of organizational contexts. By focusing on small enterprises (SMEs), this mixed methods study makes a dual contribution to the growing body of research on Carroll's (1991) (CSR) pyramid. First, the research addresses the hierarchy of the CSR pyramid in the previously neglected context of SMEs in Spain. Second, grounded in CSR orientation (CSRO) theory (Schwartz & Carroll, 2003), the study demonstrates how CSR dimensions differ between best practice corporate social performance (CSP) and normal CSP companies. The findings challenge the original hierarchy of the CSR dimensions and suggest that the philanthropic dimension is a differentiator for CSROs. Thus, in contrast to the original CSR pyramid (Carroll, 1991) and in line with the development of CSR orientation theory (Schwartz & Carroll, 2003), a balanced CSRO emphasis for best practice CSP is supported.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.011 | 0.037 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.009 | 0.009 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.004 | 0.005 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.004 | 0.006 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.004 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.003 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".