Bibliographic record
Abstract
Over the course of three days in May 1921, a series of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) hit the Earth as three major geomagnetic storms. During a geomagnetic storm, the magnetic field of the Earth fluctuates wildly over the course of a few minutes or hours. These fluctuations are larger closer to the Earth's poles, but during very large storms, the magnetic field variation is wide and extends further. During May 1921, towns and cities all over the world reported strange events. There were dazzling twilight displays of aurora borealis (created by electrically charged particles from the Sun) but at latitudes far lower than usual. Intense aurora sightings were reported in England and France, and as far south as San Antonio, Texas, and the island of Tongatabu in the South Pacific. On one morning observers reported at least five peaks of major intensity in a five-hour period across Europe and North America. Electrical surges also caused damage to trans-Atlantic cables, interrupting shipping signals along the west coast of North America and the Philippines. There was disruption to telegraph traffic in Europe and North America, and to telephone exchanges. Sparks at one exchange caused a fire in Karlstad in Sweden and long-distance telephone lines in an exchange at New Brunswick, Canada, were burned out. Conversely, there were reports of enhanced long-distance radio signals over the Atlantic and the Pacific, as enhanced ionisation resulted in stronger signals. New York stations received stronger signals from Berlin and Bordeaux, while links between stations in Samoa and Awanui, north of New Zealand, were recorded as “unusually good”.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.002 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.002 | 0.001 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.002 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.003 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.183 | 0.070 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".