Bibliographic record
Abstract
Surface waves are waves that are essentially confined to the surface of the Earth, in that their amplitudes decrease with depth in some way. This chapter covers the basic theory of such waves, as well as the theory of normal modes, which are waves confined to a surface layer, and are similar to waves in an organ pipe or the motions of a vibrating string fixed at one end or both ends, for instance. Coverage includes Rayleigh waves, which are a combination of compressional and shear waves and produce ground motions parallel to the vertical plane in which the wave is traveling, and are a dominant type of earthquake wave; and Love waves, which are shear waves that produce ground motions in the horizontal plane, and head waves, which are upgoing waves produced by critically refracted transmitted waves. Waves along an interface between two solids are also discussed. Also discussed are how the different frequencies in the wave pulse travel at different wave speeds, and the corresponding concepts of phase and group velocity. In addition, other types of normal modes are covered, as well as an interesting wave phenomenon known as the Airy phase.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.003 |
| Open science | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.001 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.030 | 0.016 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".