Introducing drone-based GPR in snow hydrology studies
Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract. Seasonal snowpack deeply influences the distribution of meltwater among watercourses and groundwater. During rain-on-snow (ROS) events, for instance, the structure and properties of the different ice and snow layers dictate the quantity of water flowing out of the snowpack, increasing the risk of flooding and ice jams. With ongoing climate change, a better understanding of the processes and internal properties influencing snowpack outflows is needed to predict the hydrological consequences as mild episodes and ROS events’ frequency increases. This study aims to develop a multi-method approach to monitor the key snowpack properties in a non-mountainous environment in a repetitive and non-destructive way. Snowpack evolution was evaluated using a combination of drone-based GPR, photogrammetry surveys and time domain reflectometry (TDR) measurements, tested during the winter of 2020–2021 at the Sainte-Marthe experimental watershed, Quebec, Canada. The experimental watershed is equipped with state-of-the-art automatic weather stations that, together with weekly snow pit measurements, serve as a reference for the multi-method monitoring approach. Drone surveys conducted on a weekly basis are used to generate georeferenced snow depth, relative density, snow water equivalent and average liquid water content maps. In between site visits, snowpack properties are monitored using TDR probes. Despite some limitations, the results show that the approach is very promising in assessing the spatiotemporal evolution of the key hydrological characteristics of the snowpack. Among others, results showed the prevalence of preferential pathways at the early stage of the ablation period, the difference in hydrological reaction to a ROS event between flat and sloped sections of the study area and the hydrological influence of solar radiation at the late stage of the ablation period.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".