Bibliographic record
Abstract
Abstract Calcium chloride, CaCl 2 , is a white, crystalline salt that is very soluble in water. Solutions containing 30–45 wt % CaCl 2 are used commercially. Of the alkaline‐earth chlorides it is the most soluble in water. It is extremely hygroscopic and liberates large amounts of heat during water absorption and on dissolution. It forms a series of hydrates containing one, two, four, and six moles of water per mole of calcium chloride. Commercial applications of calcium chloride and its hydrates exploit one or more of its properties with regard to aqueous solubility, hygroscopic nature, the heat gained or lost when one hydrated phase changes to another. Because of high solubility in water, calcium chloride is used to obtain solutions having relatively high densities. Viscosity is an important property of calcium chloride solutions in terms of engineering design and in application of such solutions to flow‐through porous media. Significant quantities of calcium chloride are produced in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Germany, Belgium, Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Japan. In the United States the principal route for making calcium chloride is by the evaporation of underground brines. The primary CaCl 2 markets have not changed since the 1950s. Significant markets in the United States are for deicing during the winter and roadbed stabilization, and as a dust palliative during the summer. Use as an accelerator in the ready‐mix concrete industry is sizable but there is concern about the possible corrosion of steel in highways and buildings. Calcium chloride is also used in oil and gas well drilling. Food‐grade calcium chloride is used in cheese making to aid in rennet coagulation and to replace calcium lost in pasteurization. In the canning industry it is used to firm the skin of fruit such as tomatoes, cucumbers, and jalapenos. Food‐grade calcium chloride is used in the brewing industry as a basic component of certain beers. Above certain levels chloride is toxic to plants and animals. Calcium chloride solutions are used as antispasmodics, diuretics and in the treatment of tetany. Concentrated solutions of calcium chloride cause erythema, exfoliation, ulceration, and scarring of the skin. Injections into the tissue may cause necrosis. If given orally calcium chloride can cause irritation to the gastrointestinal tract unless accompanied by a demulcent. Calcium chloride has been give a toxicity or hazard level of 3.
Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.
How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.001 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.003 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Research integrity | 0.002 | 0.002 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.129 | 0.086 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".