Informal housing in global cities: case studies on Hong Kong, New York City and Toronto
Bibliographic record
Abstract
This paper examines the major characteristics and drivers of informal housing in three global cities. Despite each city’s unique path to urbanization, Hong Kong, New York City, and Toronto are experiencing housing issues that are reflective of many developed, wealthy cities around the world. Continued population increase from globalization, rising property costs, and insufficient housing stock has contributed to the persistence of various forms of housing that exist outside of formal processes. The case studies exposed distinctive socio-economic and political drivers that underlies this international phenomenon. The findings revealed a continuum of informal dwelling typologies that span across a spectrum of legality and illegality, ranging from highly visible structures to those that are more hidden. This research responds to the need to understand shared challenges between cities in the East and in the West, and may be particularly relevant to city builders who are concerned about distributive justice. Key words: informal housing, informal settlements, global cities, public housing, urban development
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame distilled prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.
Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one teacher head, not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".