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Record W4285406938 · doi:10.18239/vdh_2022.11.01

De Mari a Babilonia: ciudades fortificadas en la antigua Mesopotamia

2022· article· es· W4285406938 on OpenAlex
Juan Luís Montero Fenollós

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aboutThe title or abstract carries a Canadian signal from the geographic lexicon.
no affNo Canadian affiliation: this work is invisible to an affiliation-only frame.
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Bibliographic record

VenueVínculos de Historia Revista del Departamento de Historia de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha · 2022
Typearticle
Languagees
FieldArts and Humanities
TopicAncient Near East History
Canadian institutionsnot available
Fundersnot available
KeywordsMesopotamiaHumanitiesAssyriaArtGeographyAncient historyArchaeologyHistory

Abstract

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Las ciudades mesopotámicas estaban amuralladas desde sus orígenes. Muralla y ciudad, símbolo de civilización, eran dos conceptos inseparables. Por mandato de los dioses, el rey era el responsable de la fundación de las ciudades y de la construcción de sus sistemas de defensa, que fueron evolucionando como respuesta a los cambios producidos en el arte de la guerra en el Próximo Oriente antiguo. En este artículo se analiza, en particular, la documentación arqueológica y textual de dos modelos de ciudad fortificada: Mari (III-II milenio a. C.), en el norte, y Babilonia (II-I milenio a. C.), en el sur. Se realiza una nueva propuesta de interpretación del recinto defensivo interior de Babilonia. Palabras clave: Ciudades mesopotámicas, fortificacionesTopónimos: Habuba Kabira, Mari, BabiloniaPeríodo: IV-I milenio a. C. ABSTRACTMesopotamian cities were walled from their origins. Wall and city, a symbol of civilisation, were two inseparable concepts. By mandate of the gods, the king was responsible for the foundation of the cities and the construction of their defence systems, which evolved in response to changes in the art of warfare in the ancient Near East. This article analyses, in particular, the archaeological and textual documentation of two models of fortified cities: Mari (3rd-2nd millennium B.C.), in the north, and Babylon (2nd-1st millennium B.C.), in the south. A new approach to the interpretation of the inner wall of Babylon is proposed. Keywords: Mesopotamian cities, fortificationsPlace names: Habuba Kabira, Mari, BabylonPeriod: IVth-Ist millennium B. C. REFERENCIASAbrahami, Ph. (1997), L’armée à Mari, tesis doctoral, Université de Paris I (inédita).al-Rawi, F.N.H. (1985), “Nabopolassar’s Restoration Work on the Wall Imgur-Enlil at Babylon”, Iraq, 47, pp. 1-9.Aurenche, O. (dir.) (1977), Dictionnaire illustré multilingue de l’architecture du Proche Orient Ancien, Lyon, MOM.Azara, P. (dir.) (2000), La fundación de la ciudad. Mesopotamia, Grecia y Roma, Barcelona, CCCB.Battini, L. (1996), “Un exemple de propagande néoassyrienne: les défenses de Dur-Sharrukin”, CMAO, 6, pp. 215-234.— (1997), “Les sytèmes défensifs à Babylone”, Akkadica, 104-105, pp. 24-55.Becker, H., van Ess, M., Fassbinder, J. (2019), “Uruk: Urban Structures in Magnetic and Satellite Images”, en Uruk. First City of the Ancient World, Los Angeles, Getty Museum.Burke, A. A. (2008), “Walled up to Heaven”. The Evolution of Middle Bronze Age Fortifications Strategies in the Levant, Winona Lake, Eisenbrauns.Butterlin, P. (2016), “Villes de Mésopotamie, D’Uruk à Babylone”, en L’histoire commence en Mésopotamie, París, Louvre, pp. 166-171.— (2020), “Mari, une ville circulaire ordinaire?”, en Circular Cities of Early Bronze Age Syria, Turnhout, Breplos, pp. 265-273.Chavalas, M. (ed.) (2006), Historical Sources in Translation. The Ancient Near East, Malden, Blackwell.Childe, V. G. (1992), Los orígenes de la civilización, México DF, FCE (1ª edición de 1936).Collon, D. (2008), “Le développement de l’arc en Mésopotamie”, en Les armées du Proche-Orient ancien (IIIe et Ier mil. av. J.-C.), Oxford, BAR.Durand, J. M. (1997), Les documents épistolaires du palais de Mari, tome I, Paris, Éditions du Cerf.— (1998), Les documents épistolaires du palais de Mari, tome II, Paris, Éditions du Cerf.George, A. R. (1992), Babylonian Topographical Texts, Leuven, Peeters.Herzog, Z. (1997), “Fortifications”, en The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, New York-Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp. 319-326.Hnaihen, K. H. (2020), The Defensive Brick Architecture in Mesopotamia from the end of Early Bronze Age to th end of Early Iron Age, tesis doctoral, Universidad de Almería (inédita).Houben, H. y Guillaud, H. (2006), Traité de construction en terre, Marseille, Éditions Parenthèses.Kenyon, K. M. (1963), Arqueología en Tierra Santa, Barcelona, Ediciones Garriga.Lackenbacher, S. (2001), “Fondations assyriennes”, en Mites de fundació de ciutats al món antic (Mesopotàmia, Grècia i Roma), Barcelona, MAC, pp. 69-74.Liverani, M. (2006), Uruk. La primera ciudad, Barcelona, Edicions Bellaterra.— (2014), Imaginar Babel. Dos siglos de estudios sobre la ciudad oriental antigua, Barcelona, Edicions Bellaterra.Ludwig (1980), “Mass, Sitte und Technik des Bauens in Habuba-Kabira Süd”, en Le Moyen Euphrate, zone de contactes et d’échanges, Leyden, Brill, pp. 63-74.Margueron, J. C. (2000), “Nacimiento y fundación de ciudades en Mesopotamia”, en La fundación de la ciudad. Mesopotamia, Grecia y Roma, Barcelona, CCCB, pp. 33-48.— (2004), Mari. Métropole de l’Euphrate au IIIe et au Début du IIe millénaire av. J.-C., Paris, Picard-ERC.— (2009), “La fondation de Mari. Première aproche d’une technologie de fondation”, Estudos Orientais, 10, pp. 13-33.— (2011), “Aux origines de l’architecture militaire en Mésopotamie”, en Stratégies de défense, de conquête ou de victoire en Méditerranée des textes aux architectures et à l’aménagement, Tlemcen, pp. 11-45.— (2012), “Du village à la ville: continuité ou rupture?”, en Du village néolithique à la ville syro-mésopotamienne, Ferrol, PAMES-UDC, pp. 67-97.— (2013), Cités invisibles. La naissance de l’urbanisme au Proche-Orient ancien, París, Paul Geuthner— (2014), Mari. Capital of Northern Mesopotamia in the Third Millennium, Oxford-Philadelphia, Oxbow Books.Mazar, A. (1995), “The Fortification of Cities in the Ancient Near East”, en Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, volumes III-IV, Peabody, Hendrickson Publishers, pp. 1523-1537.Mielke, D. P. (2012), “Fortifications and Fortification Strategies of Mega-Cities in the Ancient Near East”, en Mega-cities Mega-sites, the Archaeology of Consumption Disposal, Landscape, Transport Communication, 7th ICAANE vol. 1, Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz Verlag, pp. 74-91.Montero Fenollós, J. L. (2004), “Revisando a Gordon Childe, el concepto de Revolución Metalúrgica en los albores de la historia de Mesopotamia”, en Miscelánea en homenaje a Emiliano Aguirre, Alcalá de Henares, Museo Arqueológico Regional, pp. 312-319.— (2017), “Bronze Metallurgy in the Times of Earliest Cities. New Data on the City I of Mari”, Ash-Sharq, 1, pp. 48-54.— (2019), “La frontera noroccidental del reino de Mari a comienzos del II milenio a. C. a la luz de los textos y la arqueología. Reflexiones sobre la localización de Dur-Yahdun-Lim”, Claroscuro, 18, pp. 1-21.Nadali, D. (2007), “Ashurbanipal against Elam. Figurative Patterns and Architectural Location of Elamite Wars”, Historiae, 4, pp. 57-91Nigro, L. (2015), “Tell es-Sultan 2015. A Pilot Project for Archaeology in Palestine”, Near Eastern Archaeology, 79, pp. 4-17.Pedersén, O. (2011), “Excavated and Unexcavated Libraries un Babylon”, en Babylon. Wissenskultur in Orient und Okzident, Berlin-Boston, De Gruyter, pp. 47-67.— (2021), Babylon. The Great City, Münster, Zaphon.Reade J. E. (2008), “Early Travellers on the Wonders: Suggested Sites”, en Babylon: Myth and Reality, London, British Museum, pp, 112-118.Rey, S. (2012), Poliorcétique au Proche-Orient à l’âge du Bronze. Fortifications urbaines, procédés de siège et systèmes défensifs, Beyrouth, IFPO.Sanmartín, J. (2018), Gilgamesh, rey de Uruk, Madrid, Trotta.Sasson, J.M. (1969), The Military Establishments at Mari, Roma, Pontifical Biblical Institute.Sollberger, E., Kupper, J. R. (1971), Inscriptions royales sumériennes et akkadiennes, Paris, Éditions du Cerf.Thomas, A. (dir.) (2016), L’histoire commence en Mésopotamie, París, Louvre.Van Ess, M. (2008), “Koldewey, Pionier systematicher Ausgrabungen im Orient”, en Auf dem weg nach Babylon. Robert Koldewey. Ein Archäologenleben, Mainz, Verlag Philipp von Zabern, pp. 91-103.Vidal, J. (2012), “La guerra de asedio en el período paleobabilónico según los textos de Mari”, en Fortificaciones y guerra de asedio en el mundo antiguo, Zaragoza, Libros Pórtico, pp. 21-35.Wetzel, F. (1969), Stadtmauer von Babylon, Osnabrück, Otto Zellen.Yadin, Y. (1963), The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands, 2 vols., New York-Toronto-Londres, McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Fetched live from OpenAlex and de-inverted. Abstracts are not stored in this database: the inverted indexes are 8.6 GB of the frame’s 9.3 GB of text, and the host has 13 GB free.

Full frame distilled prediction

Teacher imitation

Not calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. Learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and 10,348 direct Gemma labels. Candidate is the union of thresholded teacher heads; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels or direct frontier model labels.

metaresearch head score (Codex)0.005
metaresearch head score (Gemma)0.001
Version: codex-gemma-dda1882f352aValidation status: machine_predicted_unvalidated
Candidate categoriesMeta-epidemiology (narrow), Science and technology studies, Scholarly communication, Research integrity, Insufficient payload (model declined to judge)
Consensus categoriesMeta-epidemiology (narrow)
DomainCandidate signal: none · Consensus signal: none
Study designCandidate signal: Not applicable · Consensus signal: none
GenreCandidate signal: Empirical · Consensus signal: Empirical
Teacher disagreement score0.566
Threshold uncertainty score1.000

Codex and Gemma teacher scores by category

CategoryCodexGemma
Metaresearch0.0050.001
Meta-epidemiology (narrow)0.0020.002
Meta-epidemiology (broad)0.0020.001
Bibliometrics0.0010.001
Science and technology studies0.0030.002
Scholarly communication0.0020.001
Open science0.0020.001
Research integrity0.0010.003
Insufficient payload (model declined to judge)0.0040.000

Machine scores (provisional)

The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.

Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.

Opus teacher head0.008
GPT teacher head0.231
Teacher spread0.223 · how far apart the two teachers sit on this one work
Validation statusscore_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from it