CHANGES IN HOUSEHOLD AND GENERAL GOVERNMENT CONSUMPTION AND SAVINGS DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
Bibliographic record
Abstract
In March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused a significant economic shock in countries worldwide, negatively affecting every aspect of the world economy. Due to the situation with the COVID-19 pandemic, governments imposed a lockdown on households to slow the spread of the pandemic. It was unknown how long the lockdown could last and how much impact it would have on households and the general government. Household consumption is a specific component of final GDP consumption and generally represents about 60% of GDP. Crises most often affect the individual and manifest in unplanned and unnecessary costs that affect household consumption and savings, and consequently growth and development. Eurostat states that the household savings rate of the European Union (EU) decreased in the third quarter of 2020 but was 4.5% higher than in 2019. This paper aims to analyze the differences in household consumption expenditure and net savings across the EU from 2018 until 2021 and general government consumption expenditure and net savings. In addition, it will compare the differences in household and general government consumption and savings in 2019 and 2020. This paper uses univariate statistical methods to define the differences between the EU member states and their private and public consumption expenditure and net savings. The authors will suggest further research on the topic mentioned above and provide evidence on how households should react to future pandemic situations.
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How this classification was reachedexpand
Full frame machine prediction
Teacher imitationNot calibrated prevalence, not ground truth. Human validation pending. The Gemma side is a direct model label for every work in the frame, read from the title-only record. The Codex side is a classifier learned from the 10,348 direct Codex labels and calibrated to design-weighted sample rates; fields without enough sample support carry no Codex call. Candidate is the union of the two sides; consensus is their intersection. These outputs are machine_predicted_unvalidated and are not human labels.
Distilled classifier scores by category (both heads)
| Category | Codex | Gemma |
|---|---|---|
| Metaresearch | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Meta-epidemiology (narrow) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Meta-epidemiology (broad) | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Bibliometrics | 0.001 | 0.003 |
| Science and technology studies | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Scholarly communication | 0.001 | 0.001 |
| Open science | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| Research integrity | 0.000 | 0.001 |
| Insufficient payload (model declined to judge) | 0.001 | 0.000 |
Machine scores (provisional)
The two teacher heads of the student model, read on this work. A score orders the frame for review; it never asserts a category, and the validation status ships verbatim with every row.
Baseline scores from an immature model (maturity gate not passed, 7 training rounds). Scores rank; they never assert a category.
score_only:v0-immature-baseline · verbatim from the scoring run: score_only means the number may rank works, and no category label ships from itClassification
machine, unvalidatedMachine predicted; a candidate call from one source (direct Gemma or distilled Codex), not a consensus.
How this classification was reached, model by model and score by score, is at the end of the page under "How this classification was reached".